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Maternal effects in mammals: Broadening our understanding of offspring programming. Front Neuroendocrinol 2021; 62:100924. [PMID: 33992652 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2021.100924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The perinatal period is a sensitive time in mammalian development that can have long-lasting consequences on offspring phenotype via maternal effects. Maternal effects have been most intensively studied with respect to two major conditions: maternal diet and maternal stress. In this review, we shift the focus by discussing five major additional maternal cues and their influence on offspring phenotype: maternal androgen levels, photoperiod (melatonin), microbiome, immune regulation, and milk composition. We present the key findings for each of these topics in mammals, their mechanisms of action, and how they interact with each other and with the maternal influences of diet and stress. We explore their impacts in the contexts of both predictive adaptive responses and the developmental origins of disease, identify knowledge gaps and research opportunities in the field, and place a particular emphasis on the application and consideration of these effects in non-model species and natural ecological systems.
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Frye BM, Rapaport LG, Melber T, Sears MW, Tardif SD. Sibling sex, but not androgens, shapes phenotypes in perinatal common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Sci Rep 2019; 9:1100. [PMID: 30705381 PMCID: PMC6355804 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37723-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
When offspring share a womb, interactions among fetuses can impart lasting impressions on phenotypic outcomes. Such intrauterine interactions often are mediated by sex steroids (estrogens and androgens) produced by the developing fetuses. In many mammals, intrauterine interactions between brothers and sisters lead to masculinization of females, which can induce fitness consequences. Many litter-bearing primates, though, seem to escape androgen-mediated litter effects, begging why? Here, we investigated how the sex composition (i.e., same- or mixed-sex) of litters influences perinatal outcomes in the common marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus), using a combination of physiological, morphological, and behavioural assays. We hypothesized that androgens from male fetuses would mediate developmental differences across litter types. We found that newborns (24-36 hours old) from same- and mixed-sex litters were indistinguishable by urinary androgen profiles, birth weights, morphometrics, and behaviour. However, monkeys born into same- and mixed-sex litters exhibited subtle morphological and neurobehavioral differences later in the perinatal period, independent of their androgen profiles. Our findings suggest that while androgens from male fetuses likely do not organize their siblings' phenotypes, perinatal stimuli may initiate divergent developmental trajectories among siblings, which, in turn, promotes inter-individual variability within families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett M Frye
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, 29634, USA.
| | - Lisa G Rapaport
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, 29634, USA
| | - Talia Melber
- Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 61801, USA
| | - Michael W Sears
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, 29634, USA
| | - Suzette D Tardif
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78227, USA
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Huffman MC, Santo JB, French JA. Prenatal androgen exposure and parental care interact to influence timing of reproductive maturation in marmosets. Am J Primatol 2016; 79:1-12. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle C. Huffman
- Callitrichid Research Center; University of Nebraska; Omaha Nebraska
- Department of Psychology; University of Nebraska; Omaha Nebraska
| | | | - Jeffrey A. French
- Callitrichid Research Center; University of Nebraska; Omaha Nebraska
- Department of Psychology; University of Nebraska; Omaha Nebraska
- Department of Biology; University of Nebraska; Omaha Nebraska
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Setchell JM, Smith TE, Knapp LA. Androgens in a female primate: Relationships with reproductive status, age, dominance rank, fetal sex and secondary sexual color. Physiol Behav 2015; 147:245-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.04.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2015] [Revised: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Taylor JH, Mustoe AC, Hochfelder B, French JA. Reunion behavior after social separation is associated with enhanced HPA recovery in young marmoset monkeys. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015; 57:93-101. [PMID: 25900596 PMCID: PMC4437813 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Revised: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The relationships that offspring develop with caregivers can exert a powerful influence on behavior and physiology, including the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In many mammalian species, offspring-caregiver relationships are largely limited to interactions with mother. Marmoset monkeys receive care in early life from multiple classes of caregivers in addition to the mother, including fathers and siblings. We evaluated whether affiliative social interactions with family members in marmosets were associated with differences in cortisol reactivity to a short-term social separation stressor, and whether these variations in affiliative interactions upon reunion predicted how well marmosets subsequently regulated HPA axis function after cessation of the stressor. Marmosets were separated from the family for 8h at three developmental time points (6-, 12-, and 18-months of age), and interactions of the separated marmoset with the family group were recorded during reunion. Urinary cortisol was measured prior to social separation, every 2h during the separation, and on the morning after separation. Heightened cortisol reactivity during social separation did not predict affiliative social behavior upon reunion but higher rates of grooming and play behavior predicted enhanced HPA regulation. Marmosets with higher rates of grooming and play with family members upon reunion had post-stress cortisol levels closer to preseparation baseline than marmosets with lower rates of affiliative reunion behavior. Combined with previous research showing the early programming effects of social interactions with caregivers, as well as the buffering effect of a close social partner during stress, the current study highlights the high degree of behavioral and HPA adaptability to social stressors across development in marmoset monkeys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack H. Taylor
- Department of Psychology- University of Nebraska at Omaha
,Callitrichid Research Center, University of Nebraska at Omaha
,Corresponding author: Jack Taylor, 419 Allwine Hall, University of Nebraska at Omaha,
| | - Aaryn C. Mustoe
- Department of Psychology- University of Nebraska at Omaha
,Callitrichid Research Center, University of Nebraska at Omaha
| | - Benjamin Hochfelder
- Department of Psychology- University of Nebraska at Omaha
,Callitrichid Research Center, University of Nebraska at Omaha
| | - Jeffrey A. French
- Department of Psychology- University of Nebraska at Omaha
,Callitrichid Research Center, University of Nebraska at Omaha
,Department of Biology- University of Nebraska at Omaha
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Meredith SL. Comparative perspectives on human gender development and evolution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 156 Suppl 59:72-97. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Mustoe AC, Taylor JH, Birnie AK, Huffman MC, French JA. Gestational cortisol and social play shape development of marmosets' HPA functioning and behavioral responses to stressors. Dev Psychobiol 2014; 56:1229-43. [PMID: 24510474 PMCID: PMC5996393 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Both gestational cortisol exposure (GCE) and variability in postnatal environments can shape the later-life behavioral and endocrine outcomes of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. We examined the influence of GCE and social play on HPA functioning in developing marmosets. Maternal urinary cortisol samples were collected across pregnancy to determine GCE for 28 marmoset offspring (19 litters). We administered a social separation stressor to offspring at 6, 12, and 18 months of age, during which we collected urinary cortisol samples and behavioral observations. Increased GCE was associated with increased basal cortisol levels and cortisol reactivity, but the strength of this relationship decreased across age. Increased social play was associated with decreased basal cortisol levels and a marginally greater reduction in cortisol reactivity as offspring aged, regardless of offspring GCE. Thus, GCE is associated with HPA functioning, but socially enriching postnatal environments can alter the effects associated with increased fetal exposure to glucocorticoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaryn C Mustoe
- Department of Psychology, Callitrichid Research Center, University of Nebraska at Omaha, 6001 Dodge Street, Omaha, NE, 68182.
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Rutherford JN, deMartelly VA, Layne Colon DG, Ross CN, Tardif SD. Developmental origins of pregnancy loss in the adult female common marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus). PLoS One 2014; 9:e96845. [PMID: 24871614 PMCID: PMC4037172 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0096845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The impact of the intrauterine environment on the developmental programming of adult female reproductive success is still poorly understood and potentially underestimated. Litter size variation in a nonhuman primate, the common marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus), allows us to model the effects of varying intrauterine environments (e.g. nutrient restriction, exposure to male womb-mates) on the risk of losing fetuses in adulthood. Our previous work has characterized the fetuses of triplet pregnancies as experiencing intrauterine nutritional restriction. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We used over a decade of demographic data from the Southwest National Primate Research Center common marmoset colony. We evaluated differences between twin and triplet females in the number of pregnancies they produce and the proportion of those pregnancies that ended in fetal loss. We found that triplet females produced the same number of total offspring as twin females, but lost offspring during pregnancy at a significantly higher rate than did twins (38% vs. 13%, p = 0.02). Regardless of their own birth weight or the sex ratio of the litter the experienced as fetuses, triplet females lost more fetuses than did twins. Females with a male littermate experienced a significant increase in the proportion of stillbirths. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE These striking findings anchor pregnancy loss in the mother's own fetal environment and development, underscoring a "Womb to Womb" view of the lifecourse and the intergenerational consequences of development. This has important translational implications for understanding the large proportion of human stillbirths that are unexplained. Our findings provide strong evidence that a full understanding of mammalian life history and reproductive biology requires a developmental foundation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julienne N. Rutherford
- Department of Women, Children, and Family Health, College of Nursing, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Department of Anthropology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Victoria A. deMartelly
- Department of Women, Children, and Family Health, College of Nursing, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, United States of America
- Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Donna G. Layne Colon
- Southwest National Primate Research Center/Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Corinna N. Ross
- Southwest National Primate Research Center/Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- Texas A & M University - San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, Barshop Institute for Longevity & Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Suzette D. Tardif
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, Barshop Institute for Longevity & Aging Studies, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
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French JA, Mustoe AC, Cavanaugh J, Birnie AK. The influence of androgenic steroid hormones on female aggression in 'atypical' mammals. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2013; 368:20130084. [PMID: 24167314 PMCID: PMC3826213 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dimorphism on dominance and agonistic behaviour in mammals tends to be strongly biased toward males. In this review, we focus on a select few species of mammals in which females are as or more aggressive than males, and/or are dominant to males, and explore the role of androgenic hormones in mediating this important difference. While the data are not as clear-cut as those published on traditional laboratory mammals, our review highlights important endocrine substrates for both organizational and activational influences of steroids on female aggressive behaviour. We highlight areas in which further observations and experiments are crucial, especially the potential facilitative effects of androgens on female aggression. Finally, new and innovative techniques, including molecular genetics and receptor pharmacology, portend important insights into the ways in which androgenic hormones regulate aggressive behaviour in 'atypical' female mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A. French
- Department of Psychology, Callitrichid Research Center, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA
| | - Aaryn C. Mustoe
- Department of Psychology, Callitrichid Research Center, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA
| | - Jon Cavanaugh
- Department of Psychology, Callitrichid Research Center, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA
| | - Andrew K. Birnie
- Department of Psychology, Callitrichid Research Center, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA
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French JA. The role of androgenic steroids in shaping social phenotypes across the lifespan in male marmosets (Callithrix spp.). Am J Primatol 2013; 75:212-21. [PMID: 23335110 PMCID: PMC4036459 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2012] [Revised: 07/31/2012] [Accepted: 08/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Steroid hormones, particularly androgens and their metabolic derivatives, play a prominent role in shaping morphological, behavioral, and social phenotypes in many organisms, including primates. This paper reviews the endocrine correlates of development in male marmoset monkeys of the genus Callithrix (C. kuhlii and C. geoffroyi). A lifespan developmental perspective is adopted, in which our knowledge of hormone effects and profiles from prenatal periods through old age is described. Prenatal steroid hormones appear to play a prominent role in shaping behavioral and morphological phenotypes both the prepartum and in the early postpartum periods of life, with exposure to high gestational androgen associated with reduced fetal growth and lower levels of juvenile play. Early postnatal elevations in androgen levels in males are ubiquitous in Callithrix, and play a role in the further differentiation of male genital morphology and behavior. Changes in androgens as males approach puberty are similar to the conventional primate pattern, and unlike in female marmosets, gonadal steroidogenesis appears to be independent of social context. In adults, androgens appear to be an important modulator of paternal responsiveness to infants, since androgens are low at times when males typically engage in maximal levels of care, and fathers that care for offspring extensively appear to have lower androgen levels than fathers that are less involved in offspring care. Finally, aging in male marmosets is associated with reduced androgen levels. This reduction appears to be attributable to deficits in central mechanisms, since experimental induction and inhibition of gonadal steroid synthesis and release appears to be normal in older males. Together, these results suggest a complex picture of lifetime involvement of androgens in shaping marmoset phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey A French
- Department of Psychology, University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE 68182, USA.
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