1
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Hodel AW, Rudd-Schmidt JA, Trapani JA, Voskoboinik I, Hoogenboom BW. Lipid specificity of the immune effector perforin. Faraday Discuss 2021; 232:236-255. [PMID: 34545865 PMCID: PMC8704153 DOI: 10.1039/d0fd00043d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Perforin is a pore forming protein used by cytotoxic T lymphocytes to remove cancerous or virus-infected cells during the immune response. During the response, the lymphocyte membrane becomes refractory to perforin function by accumulating densely ordered lipid rafts and externalizing negatively charged lipid species. The dense membrane packing lowers the capacity of perforin to bind, and the negatively charged lipids scavenge any residual protein before pore formation. Using atomic force microscopy on model membrane systems, we here provide insight into the molecular basis of perforin lipid specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian W Hodel
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia.
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 19 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AH, UK.
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Jesse A Rudd-Schmidt
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia.
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Joseph A Trapani
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Ilia Voskoboinik
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia.
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Bart W Hoogenboom
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 19 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AH, UK.
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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2
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Rudd-Schmidt JA, Hodel AW, Noori T, Lopez JA, Cho HJ, Verschoor S, Ciccone A, Trapani JA, Hoogenboom BW, Voskoboinik I. Lipid order and charge protect killer T cells from accidental death. Nat Commun 2019; 10:5396. [PMID: 31776337 PMCID: PMC6881447 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13385-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Killer T cells (cytotoxic T lymphocytes, CTLs) maintain immune homoeostasis by eliminating virus-infected and cancerous cells. CTLs achieve this by forming an immunological synapse with their targets and secreting a pore-forming protein (perforin) and pro-apoptotic serine proteases (granzymes) into the synaptic cleft. Although the CTL and the target cell are both exposed to perforin within the synapse, only the target cell membrane is disrupted, while the CTL is invariably spared. How CTLs escape unscathed remains a mystery. Here, we report that CTLs achieve this via two protective properties of their plasma membrane within the synapse: high lipid order repels perforin and, in addition, exposed phosphatidylserine sequesters and inactivates perforin. The resulting resistance of CTLs to perforin explains their ability to kill target cells in rapid succession and to survive these encounters. Furthermore, these mechanisms imply an unsuspected role for plasma membrane organization in protecting cells from immune attack.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse A Rudd-Schmidt
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Adrian W Hodel
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 19 Gordon Street, London, WC1H 0AH, UK
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Tahereh Noori
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Jamie A Lopez
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
- Bristol-Myers Squibb, 4 Nexus Ct, Mulgrave, VIC, 3170, Australia
| | - Hyun-Jung Cho
- Biological Optical Microscopy Platform, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Sandra Verschoor
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Annette Ciccone
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Joseph A Trapani
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia
| | - Bart W Hoogenboom
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 19 Gordon Street, London, WC1H 0AH, UK.
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK.
| | - Ilia Voskoboinik
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, 305 Grattan Street, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia.
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia.
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3
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Abstract
Perforin is an indispensable effector protein of primary cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTL or NK cells) that typically defend the host against virus infection, or gene-modified (chimeric antigen receptor-CAR) anticancer T cells. Perforin's pore-forming activity is necessary for the delivery of proapoptotic serine proteases, granzymes, into the cytosol of infected or cancerous target cells. The complete loss of perforin function is detrimental for the function of cytotoxic lymphocytes, and leads to fatal immune dysregulation in infants and predisposes the carriers of hypomorphic perforin mutations to various chronic inflammatory sequelae and blood cancers. Here, we describe several optimized and validated functional assays using purified effector proteins and cytotoxic lymphocytes that enable detailed analysis of perforin-mediated target cell death pathways.
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4
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Lopez JA, Noori T, Minson A, Li Jovanoska L, Thia K, Hildebrand MS, Akhlaghi H, Darcy PK, Kershaw MH, Brown NJ, Grigg A, Trapani JA, Voskoboinik I. Bi-Allelic Mutations in STXBP2 Reveal a Complementary Role for STXBP1 in Cytotoxic Lymphocyte Killing. Front Immunol 2018; 9:529. [PMID: 29599780 PMCID: PMC5862791 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of cytotoxic lymphocytes (CL) to eliminate virus-infected or cancerous target cells through the granule exocytosis death pathway is critical to immune homeostasis. Congenital loss of CL function due to bi-allelic mutations in PRF1, UNC13D, STX11, or STXBP2 leads to a potentially fatal immune dysregulation, familial haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL). This occurs due to the failure of CLs to release functional pore-forming protein perforin and, therefore, inability to kill the target cell. Bi-allelic mutations in partner proteins STXBP2 or STX11 impair CL cytotoxicity due to failed docking/fusion of cytotoxic secretory granules with the plasma membrane. One unique feature of STXBP2- and STX11-deficient patient CLs is that their short-term in vitro treatment with a low concentration of IL-2 partially or completely restores natural killer (NK) cell degranulation and cytotoxicity, suggesting the existence of a secondary, yet unknown, pathway for secretory granule exocytosis. In the current report, we studied NK and T-cell function in an individual with late presentation of FHL due to hypomorphic bi-allelic mutations in STXBP2. Intriguingly, in addition to the expected alterations in the STXBP2 and STX11 proteins, we also observed a concomitant significant reduction in the expression of homologous STXBP1 protein and its partner STX1, which had never been implicated in CL function. Further analysis of human NK and T cells demonstrated a functional role for the STXBP1/STX1 axis in NK and CD8+ T-cell cytotoxicity, where it appears to be responsible for as much as 50% of their cytotoxic activity. This discovery suggests a unique and previously unappreciated interplay between STXBP/Munc proteins regulating the same essential granule exocytosis pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie A Lopez
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Tahereh Noori
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Adrian Minson
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
| | - Lu Li Jovanoska
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kevin Thia
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Hedieh Akhlaghi
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Phillip K Darcy
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Michael H Kershaw
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Natasha J Brown
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrew Grigg
- Department of Clinical Haematology, Austin Health, Heidelberg, VIC, Australia
| | - Joseph A Trapani
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Ilia Voskoboinik
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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5
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Brennan AJ, Law RHP, Conroy PJ, Noori T, Lukoyanova N, Saibil H, Yagita H, Ciccone A, Verschoor S, Whisstock JC, Trapani JA, Voskoboinik I. Perforin proteostasis is regulated through its C2 domain: supra-physiological cell death mediated by T431D-perforin. Cell Death Differ 2018; 25:1517-1529. [PMID: 29416110 DOI: 10.1038/s41418-018-0057-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The pore forming, Ca2+-dependent protein, perforin, is essential for the function of cytotoxic lymphocytes, which are at the frontline of immune defence against pathogens and cancer. Perforin is a glycoprotein stored in the secretory granules prior to release into the immune synapse. Congenital perforin deficiency causes fatal immune dysregulation, and is associated with various haematological malignancies. At least 50% of pathological missense mutations in perforin result in protein misfolding and retention in the endoplasmic reticulum. However, the regulation of perforin proteostasis remains unexplored. Using a variety of biochemical assays that assess protein stability and acquisition of complex glycosylation, we demonstrated that the binding of Ca2+ to the C2 domain stabilises perforin and regulates its export from the endoplasmic reticulum to the secretory granules. As perforin is a thermo-labile protein, we hypothesised that by altering its C2 domain it may be possible to improve protein stability. On the basis of the X-ray crystal structure of the perforin C2 domain, we designed a mutation (T431D) in the Ca2+ binding loop. Mutant perforin displayed markedly enhanced thermal stability and lytic function, despite its trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum remaining unchanged. Furthermore, by introducing the T431D mutation into A90V perforin, a pathogenic mutation, which results in protein misfolding, we corrected the A90V folding defect and completely restored perforin's cytotoxic function. These results revealed an unexpected role for the Ca2+-dependent C2 domain in maintaining perforin proteostasis and demonstrated the possibility of designing perforin with supra-physiological cytotoxic function through stabilisation of the C2 domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia J Brennan
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Ruby H P Law
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,The ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul J Conroy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,The ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Tahereh Noori
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Natalya Lukoyanova
- Department of Crystallography/Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck College, London, UK
| | - Helen Saibil
- Department of Crystallography/Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck College, London, UK
| | - Hideo Yagita
- Department of Immunology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Annette Ciccone
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Sandra Verschoor
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - James C Whisstock
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,The ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Joseph A Trapani
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ilia Voskoboinik
- Killer Cell Biology Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. .,Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
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6
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Stewart SE, Bird CH, Tabor RF, D'Angelo ME, Piantavigna S, Whisstock JC, Trapani JA, Martin LL, Bird PI. Analysis of Perforin Assembly by Quartz Crystal Microbalance Reveals a Role for Cholesterol and Calcium-independent Membrane Binding. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:31101-12. [PMID: 26542805 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.683078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Perforin is an essential component in the cytotoxic lymphocyte-mediated cell death pathway. The traditional view holds that perforin monomers assemble into pores in the target cell membrane via a calcium-dependent process and facilitate translocation of cytotoxic proteases into the cytoplasm to induce apoptosis. Although many studies have examined the structure and role of perforin, the mechanics of pore assembly and granzyme delivery remain unclear. Here we have employed quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) to investigate binding and assembly of perforin on lipid membranes, and show that perforin monomers bind to the membrane in a cooperative manner. We also found that cholesterol influences perforin binding and activity on intact cells and model membranes. Finally, contrary to current thinking, perforin efficiently binds membranes in the absence of calcium. When calcium is added to perforin already on the membrane, the QCM-D response changes significantly, indicating that perforin becomes membranolytic only after calcium binding.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - James C Whisstock
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Australian Research Council (ARC) Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800 and
| | - Joseph A Trapani
- the Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, St Andrew's Place, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia
| | | | - Phillip I Bird
- From the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
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7
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Naneh O, Zavec AB, Pahovnik D, Žagar E, Gilbert RJ, Križaj I, Anderluh G. An optimized protocol for expression and purification of murine perforin in insect cells. J Immunol Methods 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2015.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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8
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Stewart SE, Kondos SC, Matthews AY, D'Angelo ME, Dunstone MA, Whisstock JC, Trapani JA, Bird PI. The perforin pore facilitates the delivery of cationic cargos. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:9172-81. [PMID: 24558045 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.544890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocytes eliminate virally infected or neoplastic cells through the action of cytotoxic proteases (granzymes). The pore-forming protein perforin is essential for delivery of granzymes into the cytoplasm of target cells; however the mechanism of this delivery is incompletely understood. Perforin contains a membrane attack complex/perforin (MACPF) domain and oligomerizes to form an aqueous pore in the plasma membrane; therefore the simplest (and best supported) model suggests that granzymes passively diffuse through the perforin pore into the cytoplasm of the target cell. Here we demonstrate that perforin preferentially delivers cationic molecules while anionic and neutral cargoes are delivered inefficiently. Furthermore, another distantly related pore-forming MACPF protein, pleurotolysin (from the oyster mushroom), also favors the delivery of cationic molecules, and efficiently delivers human granzyme B. We propose that this facilitated diffusion is due to conserved features of oligomerized MACPF proteins, which may include an anionic lumen.
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9
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Susanto O, Stewart SE, Voskoboinik I, Brasacchio D, Hagn M, Ellis S, Asquith S, Sedelies KA, Bird PI, Waterhouse NJ, Trapani JA. Mouse granzyme A induces a novel death with writhing morphology that is mechanistically distinct from granzyme B-induced apoptosis. Cell Death Differ 2013; 20:1183-93. [PMID: 23744295 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2013.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/30/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Human and mouse granzyme (Gzm)B both induce target cell apoptosis in concert with pore-forming perforin (Pfp); however the mechanisms by which other Gzms induce non-apoptotic death remain controversial and poorly characterised. We used timelapse microscopy to document, quantitatively and in real time, the death of target cells exposed to primary natural killer (NK) cells from mice deficient in key Gzms. We found that in the vast majority of cases, NK cells from wild-type mice induced classic apoptosis. However, NK cells from syngeneic Gzm B-deficient mice induced a novel form of cell death characterised by slower kinetics and a pronounced, writhing, 'worm-like' morphology. Dying cells initially contracted but did not undergo membrane blebbing, and annexin-V staining was delayed until the onset of secondary necrosis. As it is different from any cell death process previously reported, we tentatively termed this cell death 'athetosis'. Two independent lines of evidence showed this alternate form of death was due to Gzm A: first, cell death was revealed in the absence of Gzm B, but was completely lost when the NK cells were deficient in both Gzm A and B; second, the athetotic morphology was precisely reproduced when recombinant mouse Gzm A was delivered by an otherwise innocuous dose of recombinant Pfp. Gzm A-mediated athetosis did not require caspase activation, early mitochondrial disruption or generation of reactive oxygen species, but did require an intact actin cytoskeleton and was abolished by latrunculin B and mycalolide B. This work defines an authentic role for mouse Gzm A in granule-induced cell death by cytotoxic lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Susanto
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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10
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Ibana JA, Myers L, Porretta C, Lewis M, Taylor SN, Martin DH, Quayle AJ. The major CD8 T cell effector memory subset in the normal and Chlamydia trachomatis-infected human endocervix is low in perforin. BMC Immunol 2012; 13:66. [PMID: 23216954 PMCID: PMC3538661 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2172-13-66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The local tissue microenvironment plays an important role in the induction, homing, maintenance and development of effector functions of T cells. Thus, site-specific differences in phenotypes of mucosal and systemic T cell populations have been observed. Chlamydia trachomatis most commonly infects the endocervix in women, yet little is known about Chlamydia-specific effector T cell immunity at this unique mucosal site. Our previous flow-cytometry-based study of cervical-cytobrush retrieved cells indicated that CD8 T cells are significantly increased in the C. trachomatis-infected human endocervix. The cytolytic function of CD8 T cells is important in the protective immunity against many intracellular pathogens, and requires the cytolytic granule perforin to facilitate the entry of other molecules that mediate the lysis of target cells. Determination of perforin expression of the CD8 T cell population in the endocervix would therefore provide insights on the granule-mediated cytolytic potential of these cells at this site. RESULTS Our histological data revealed that C. trachomatis-infected tissues have significantly higher numbers of CD3 and CD8 T cells compared to non-infected tissues (p<0.01), and that the majority of CD8+ cells do not express perforin in situ. A subsequent flow cytometric analysis of paired blood and endocervix-derived cells (n=16) revealed that while all the CD8 T cell subsets: naïve, effector memory (TEM), central memory (TCM) and terminally differentiated effector memory (TEMRA) can be found in the blood, the endocervix is populated mainly by the TEM CD8 T cell subset. Our data also showed that perforin expression in the TEM population is significantly lower in the endocervix than in the blood of C. trachomatis positive women (n=15; p<0.0001), as well as in C. trachomatis-negative individuals (n=6; p<0.05). Interestingly, our in vitro co-culture study suggests that the exposure of HeLa 229 cervical epithelial cells to IFN gamma could potentially induce a decrease in perforin content in CD8 TEM cells in the same microenvironment. CONCLUSIONS The low perforin content of CD8 TEM cells in the endocervix, the local site of C. trachomatis infection in women, may reflect the unique immunological environment that balances immune protection against sexually transmitted infections and immune- tolerance to support conception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce A Ibana
- Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology Department, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
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11
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Hoves S, Sutton VR, Haynes NM, Hawkins ED, Fernández Ruiz D, Baschuk N, Sedelies KA, Schnurr M, Stagg J, Andrews DM, Villadangos JA, Trapani JA. A critical role for granzymes in antigen cross-presentation through regulating phagocytosis of killed tumor cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 187:1166-75. [PMID: 21709155 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1001670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Granzymes A and B (GrAB) are known principally for their role in mediating perforin-dependent death of virus-infected or malignant cells targeted by CTL. In this study, we show that granzymes also play a critical role as inducers of Ag cross-presentation by dendritic cells (DC). This was demonstrated by the markedly reduced priming of naive CD8(+) T cells specific for the model Ag OVA both in vitro and in vivo in response to tumor cells killed in the absence of granzymes. Reduced cross-priming was due to impairment of phagocytosis of tumor cell corpses by CD8α(+) DC but not CD8α(-) DC, demonstrating the importance of granzymes in inducing the exposure of prophagocytic "eat-me" signals on the dying target cell. Our data reveal a critical and previously unsuspected role for granzymes A and B in dictating immunogenicity by influencing the mode of tumor cell death and indicate that granzymes contribute to the efficient generation of immune effector pathways in addition to their well-known role in apoptosis induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Hoves
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne 3002, Victoria, Australia.
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12
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Brennan AJ, Chia J, Browne KA, Ciccone A, Ellis S, Lopez JA, Susanto O, Verschoor S, Yagita H, Whisstock JC, Trapani JA, Voskoboinik I. Protection from endogenous perforin: glycans and the C terminus regulate exocytic trafficking in cytotoxic lymphocytes. Immunity 2011; 34:879-92. [PMID: 21658975 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2011.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2010] [Revised: 01/18/2011] [Accepted: 04/07/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Cytotoxic lymphocyte-mediated apoptosis is dependent on the delivery of perforin to secretory granules and its ability to form calcium-dependent pores in the target cell after granule exocytosis. It is unclear how cytotoxic lymphocytes synthesize and store perforin without incurring damage or death. We discovered that the extreme C terminus of perforin was essential for rapid trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi compartment. Substitution of the C-terminal tryptophan residue resulted in retention of perforin in the ER followed by calcium-dependent toxic activity that eliminated host cells. We also found that N-linked glycosylation of perforin was critical for transport from the Golgi to secretory granules. Overall, an intact C terminus and N-linked glycosylation provide accurate and efficient export of perforin from the endoplasmic reticulum to the secretory granules and are critical for cytotoxic lymphocyte survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelia J Brennan
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne, 3002, Australia
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13
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The structural basis for membrane binding and pore formation by lymphocyte perforin. Nature 2010; 468:447-51. [PMID: 21037563 DOI: 10.1038/nature09518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 304] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes accomplish the critically important function of killing virus-infected and neoplastic cells. They do this by releasing the pore-forming protein perforin and granzyme proteases from cytoplasmic granules into the cleft formed between the abutting killer and target cell membranes. Perforin, a 67-kilodalton multidomain protein, oligomerizes to form pores that deliver the pro-apoptopic granzymes into the cytosol of the target cell. The importance of perforin is highlighted by the fatal consequences of congenital perforin deficiency, with more than 50 different perforin mutations linked to familial haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (type 2 FHL). Here we elucidate the mechanism of perforin pore formation by determining the X-ray crystal structure of monomeric murine perforin, together with a cryo-electron microscopy reconstruction of the entire perforin pore. Perforin is a thin 'key-shaped' molecule, comprising an amino-terminal membrane attack complex perforin-like (MACPF)/cholesterol dependent cytolysin (CDC) domain followed by an epidermal growth factor (EGF) domain that, together with the extreme carboxy-terminal sequence, forms a central shelf-like structure. A C-terminal C2 domain mediates initial, Ca(2+)-dependent membrane binding. Most unexpectedly, however, electron microscopy reveals that the orientation of the perforin MACPF domain in the pore is inside-out relative to the subunit arrangement in CDCs. These data reveal remarkable flexibility in the mechanism of action of the conserved MACPF/CDC fold and provide new insights into how related immune defence molecules such as complement proteins assemble into pores.
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14
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Thiery J, Walch M, Jensen DK, Martinvalet D, Lieberman J. Isolation of cytotoxic T cell and NK granules and purification of their effector proteins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; Chapter 3:Unit3.37. [PMID: 20521234 DOI: 10.1002/0471143030.cb0337s47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Killer lymphocytes induce apoptosis by the release of cytotoxic mediators from specialized secretory lysosomes, called cytotoxic granules, into the immunological synapse formed with a cell targeted for elimination. Methods are presented here for isolating CTL and NK cell cytotoxic granules using cell disruption by nitrogen cavitation followed by continuous Percoll density gradient fractionation. Protocols are also given for purifying the key cytolytic molecules (perforin, granzyme A, granzyme B, and granulysin) from isolated cytotoxic granules by fast protein liquid chromatography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome Thiery
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Children's Hospital and Immune Disease Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Ludvigsen M, Jacobsen C, Maunsbach AB, Honoré B. Identification and characterization of novel ERC-55 interacting proteins: Evidence for the existence of several ERC-55 splicing variants; including the cytosolic ERC-55-C. Proteomics 2009; 9:5267-87. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200900321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Hoves S, Trapani JA, Voskoboinik I. The battlefield of perforin/granzyme cell death pathways. J Leukoc Biol 2009; 87:237-43. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0909608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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Baran K, Dunstone M, Chia J, Ciccone A, Browne KA, Clarke CJP, Lukoyanova N, Saibil H, Whisstock JC, Voskoboinik I, Trapani JA. The molecular basis for perforin oligomerization and transmembrane pore assembly. Immunity 2009; 30:684-95. [PMID: 19446473 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2009.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2008] [Revised: 11/24/2008] [Accepted: 03/06/2009] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Perforin, a pore-forming protein secreted by cytotoxic lymphocytes, is indispensable for destroying virus-infected cells and for maintaining immune homeostasis. Perforin polymerizes into transmembrane channels that inflict osmotic stress and facilitate target cell uptake of proapoptotic granzymes. Despite this, the mechanism through which perforin monomers self-associate remains unknown. Our current study establishes the molecular basis for perforin oligomerization and pore assembly. We show that after calcium-dependent membrane binding, direct ionic attraction between the opposite faces of adjacent perforin monomers was necessary for pore formation. By using mutagenesis, we identified the opposing charges on residues Arg213 (positive) and Glu343 (negative) to be critical for intermolecular interaction. Specifically, disrupting this interaction had no effect on perforin synthesis, folding, or trafficking in the killer cell, but caused a marked kinetic defect of oligomerization at the target cell membrane, severely disrupting lysis and granzyme B-induced apoptosis. Our study provides important insights into perforin's mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Baran
- Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, St Andrew's Place, East Melbourne, Victoria 3002, Australia
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Martin SJ. Getting the measure of apoptosis. Methods 2008; 44:197-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2008.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Sedelies KA, Ciccone A, Clarke CJP, Oliaro J, Sutton VR, Scott FL, Silke J, Susanto O, Green DR, Johnstone RW, Bird PI, Trapani JA, Waterhouse NJ. Blocking granule-mediated death by primary human NK cells requires both protection of mitochondria and inhibition of caspase activity. Cell Death Differ 2008; 15:708-17. [PMID: 18202705 DOI: 10.1038/sj.cdd.4402300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Human GraB (hGraB) preferentially induces apoptosis via Bcl-2-regulated mitochondrial damage but can also directly cleave caspases and caspase substrates in cell-free systems. How hGraB kills cells when it is delivered by cytotoxic lymphocytes (CL) and the contribution of hGraB to CL-induced death is still not clear. We show that primary human natural killer (hNK) cells, which specifically used hGraB to induce target cell death, were able to induce apoptosis of cells whose mitochondria were protected by Bcl-2. Purified hGraB also induced apoptosis of Bcl-2-overexpressing targets but only when delivered at 5- to 10-fold the concentration required to kill cells expressing endogenous Bcl-2. Caspases were critical in this process as inhibition of caspase activity permitted clonogenic survival of Bcl-2-overexpressing cells treated with hGraB or hNK cells but did not protect cells that only expressed endogenous Bcl-2. Our data therefore show that hGraB triggers caspase activation via mitochondria-dependent and mitochondria-independent mechanisms that are activated in a hierarchical manner, and that the combined effects of Bcl-2 and direct caspase inhibition can block cell death induced by hGraB and primary hNK cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Sedelies
- Cancer Cell Death Laboratory, Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Locked Bag 1, A'Beckett Street, Melbourne, Victoria 8006, Australia
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