Membrane proteins in four acts: function precedes structure determination

On mechanisms of colicin import: the outer membrane quandary

Current problems in the understanding of colicin import across the Escherichia coli outer membrane (OM), involving a range of cytotoxic mechanisms, are discussed: (I) Crystal structure analysis of colicin E3 (RNAase) with bound OM vitamin B₁₂ receptor, BtuB, and of the N-terminal translocation (T) domain of E3 and E9 (DNAase) inserted into the OM OmpF porin, provide details of the initial interaction of the colicin central receptor (R)- and N-terminal T-domain with OM receptors/translocators. (II) Features of the translocon include: (a) high-affinity (K _d ≈ 10^-9 M) binding of the E3 receptor-binding R-domain E3 to BtuB; (b) insertion of disordered colicin N-terminal domain into the OmpF trimer; (c) binding of the N-terminus, documented for colicin E9, to the TolB protein on the periplasmic side of OmpF. Reinsertion of the colicin N-terminus into the second of the three pores in OmpF implies a colicin anchor site on the periplasmic side of OmpF. (III) Studies on the insertion of nuclease colicins into the cytoplasmic compartment imply that translocation proceeds via the C-terminal catalytic domain, proposed here to insert through the unoccupied third pore of the OmpF trimer, consistent with in vitro occlusion of OmpF channels by the isolated E3 C-terminal domain. (IV) Discussion of channel-forming colicins focuses mainly on colicin E1 for which BtuB is receptor and the OM TolC protein the proposed translocator. The ability of TolC, part of a multidrug efflux pump, for which there is no precedent for an import function, to provide a trans-periplasmic import pathway for colicin E1, is questioned on the basis of an unfavorable hairpin conformation of colicin N-terminal peptides inserted into TolC.

Alpha-synuclein at the intracellular and the extracellular side: functional and dysfunctional implications

Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is an abundant neuronal protein whose physiological function, even if still not completely understood, has been consistently related to synaptic function and vesicle trafficking. A group of disorders known as synucleinopathies, among which Parkinson’s disease (PD), is deeply associated with the misfolding and aggregation of α-syn, which can give rise to proteinaceous inclusion known as Lewy bodies (LB). Proteostasis stress is a relevant aspect in these diseases and, currently, the presence of oligomeric α-syn species rather than insoluble aggregated forms, appeared to be associated with cytotoxicity. Many observations suggest that α-syn is responsible for neurodegeneration by interfering with multiple signaling pathways. α-syn protein can directly form plasma membrane channels or modify with their activity, thus altering membrane permeability to ions, abnormally associate with mitochondria and cause mitochondrial dysfunction (i.e. mitochondrial depolarization, Ca2+ dys-homeostasis, cytochrome c release) and interfere with autophagy regulation. The picture is further complicated by the fact that single point mutations, duplications and triplication in α-syn gene are linked to autosomal dominant forms of PD. In this review we discuss the multi-faced aspect of α-syn biology and address the main hypothesis at the basis of its involvement in neuronal degeneration.

Reduction in horizontal transfer of conjugative plasmid by UV irradiation and low-level chlorination

The widespread presence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) in the drinking water system facilitates their horizontal gene transfer among microbiota. In this study, the conjugative gene transfer of RP4 plasmid after disinfection including ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and low-level chlorine treatment was investigated. It was found that both UV irradiation and low-level chlorine treatment reduced the conjugative gene transfer frequency. The transfer frequency gradually decreased from 2.75 × 10(-3) to 2.44 × 10(-5) after exposure to UV doses ranging from 5 to 20 mJ/cm(2). With higher UV dose of 50 and 100 mJ/cm(2), the transfer frequency was reduced to 1.77 × 10(-6) and 2.44 × 10(-8). The RP4 plasmid transfer frequency was not significantly affected by chlorine treatment at dosages ranging from 0.05 to 0.2 mg/l, but treatment with 0.3-0.5 mg/l chlorine induced a decrease in conjugative transfer to 4.40 × 10(-5) or below the detection limit. The mechanisms underlying these phenomena were also explored, and the results demonstrated that UV irradiation and chlorine treatment (0.3 and 0.5 mg/l) significantly reduced the viability of bacteria, thereby lowering the conjugative transfer frequency. Although the lower chlorine concentrations tested (0.05-0.2 mg/l) were not sufficient to damage the cells, exposure to these concentrations may still depress the expression of a flagellar gene (FlgC), an outer membrane porin gene (ompF), and a DNA transport-related gene (TraG). Additionally, fewer pili were scattered on the bacteria after chlorine treatment. These findings are important in assessing and controlling the risk of ARG transfer and dissemination in the drinking water system.

Quasithermodynamic contributions to the fluctuations of a protein nanopore

Proteins undergo thermally activated conformational fluctuations among two or more substates, but a quantitative inquiry on their kinetics is persistently challenged by numerous factors, including the complexity and dynamics of various interactions, along with the inability to detect functional substates within a resolvable time scale. Here, we analyzed in detail the current fluctuations of a monomeric β-barrel protein nanopore of known high-resolution X-ray crystal structure. We demonstrated that targeted perturbations of the protein nanopore system, in the form of loop-deletion mutagenesis, accompanying alterations of electrostatic interactions between long extracellular loops, produced modest changes of the differential activation free energies calculated at 25 °C, ΔΔG(⧧), in the range near the thermal energy but substantial and correlated modifications of the differential activation enthalpies, ΔΔH(⧧), and entropies, ΔΔS(⧧). This finding indicates that the local conformational reorganizations of the packing and flexibility of the fluctuating loops lining the central constriction of this protein nanopore were supplemented by changes in the single-channel kinetics. These changes were reflected in the enthalpy-entropy reconversions of the interactions between the loop partners with a compensating temperature, TC, of ∼300 K, and an activation free energy constant of ∼41 kJ/mol. We also determined that temperature has a much greater effect on the energetics of the equilibrium gating fluctuations of a protein nanopore than other environmental parameters, such as the ionic strength of the aqueous phase as well as the applied transmembrane potential, likely due to ample changes in the solvation activation enthalpies. There is no fundamental limitation for applying this approach to other complex, multistate membrane protein systems. Therefore, this methodology has major implications in the area of membrane protein design and dynamics, primarily by revealing a better quantitative assessment on the equilibrium transitions among multiple well-defined and functionally distinct substates of protein channels and pores.

Role of Se+Zn in regeneration (Ki-67) following Pb toxicity (p53andcad) in the germinal epithelium of adult Wistar rats

The germinal epithelium is the delicate epithelial lining of the seminiferous tubule lying on the blood-testes barrier; formed by the sustenacular cells of Sertoli and the adjoining basement epithelium this study addresses the effect of lead (Pb) toxicity on the epithelium and the proliferative effect of Zinc (Zn) and Selenium (Se) administered in trace concentration. Sixty F1 generation adult male Wistar rats were divided into four groups of 15 animals each. Group 1 received normal saline, group 2: 100 mg kg(-1) of lead acetate, group 3: 100 mg kg(-1) of lead acetate then 2.25 mg kg(-1) each of Zinc (Chelated zinc) and Selenium (Sodium Selenium) and group 4: 2.25 mg kg(-1) of zinc and selenium (Se+Zn). The duration of treatment was 56 days following which the animals were sacrificed on the 57th day and the testes harvested and fixed in Bouin's fluid. Pb induced toxicity can follow a mitochondria pathway involving Cathepsin D (CAD) or a cytoplasmic pathway involving p53 (protein 53; a 53 KDa nucleolase), the most predominant form of cell death is apoptosis which can result from both pathways. Se+Zn treatment improves proliferation and counters Pb toxicity by substitution, activation of enzymes (radical scavengers and vitamins), growth factors, activation of endothelial factors and activation of oxygen radical scavengers.