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Platania L, Gómez-Zurita J. Analysis of intrinsic evolutionary factors leading to microendemic distributions in New Caledonian leaf beetles. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6909. [PMID: 37106022 PMCID: PMC10140066 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34104-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Microendemicity, or the condition of some species having local ranges, is a relatively common pattern in nature. However, the factors that lead to this pattern are still largely unknown. Most studies addressing this issue tend to focus on extrinsic factors associated with microendemic distributions, such as environmental conditions, hypothesising a posteriori about underlying potential speciation mechanisms, linked or not to these conditions. Here, we use a multi-faceted approach mostly focusing on intrinsic factors instead, namely diversification dynamics and speciation modes in two endemic sibling genera of leaf beetles with microendemic distributions, Taophila and Tricholapita, in a microendemicity hotspot, New Caledonia. Results suggest that the diversification rate in this lineage slowed down through most of the Neogene and consistently with a protracted speciation model possibly combined with several ecological and environmental factors potentially adding rate-slowing effects through time. In turn, species accumulated following successive allopatric speciation cycles, possibly powered by marked geological and climatic changes in the region in the last 25 million years, with daughter species ranges uncorrelated with the time of speciation. In this case, microendemicity seems to reflect a mature state for the system, rather than a temporary condition for recent species, as suggested for many microendemic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Platania
- Botanical Institute of Barcelona (CSIC-Ajuntament Barcelona), Pg. del Migdia S/N, 08038, Barcelona, Spain
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jesús Gómez-Zurita
- Botanical Institute of Barcelona (CSIC-Ajuntament Barcelona), Pg. del Migdia S/N, 08038, Barcelona, Spain.
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2
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Cooper JC, Crouch NMA, Ferguson AW, Bates JM. Climatic refugia and reduced extinction correlate with underdispersion in mammals and birds in Africa. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8752. [PMID: 35356571 PMCID: PMC8941498 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Macroevolutionary patterns, often inferred from metrics of community relatedness, are often used to ascertain major evolutionary processes shaping communities. These patterns have been shown to be informative of biogeographic barriers, of habitat suitability and invasibility (especially with regard to environmental filtering), and of regions that function as evolutionary cradles (i.e., sources of diversification) or museums (i.e., regions of reduced extinction). Here, we analyzed continental datasets of mammal and bird distributions to identify primary drivers of community evolution on the African continent for mostly endothermic vertebrates. We find that underdispersion (i.e., relatively low phylogenetic diversity compared to species richness) closely correlates with specific ecoregions that have been identified as climatic refugia in the literature, regardless of whether these specific regions have been touted as cradles or museums. Using theoretical models of identical communities that differ only with respect to extinction rates, we find that even small suppressions of extinction rates can result in underdispersed communities, supporting the hypothesis that climatic stability can lead to underdispersion. We posit that large-scale patterns of under- and overdispersion between regions of similar species richness are more reflective of a particular region's extinction potential, and that the very nature of refugia can lead to underdispersion via the steady accumulation of species richness through diversification within the same ecoregion during climatic cycles. Thus, patterns of environmental filtering can be obfuscated by environments that coincide with biogeographic refugia, and considerations of regional biogeographic history are paramount for inferring macroevolutionary processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob C. Cooper
- Committee on Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ChicagoChicagoIllinoisUSA
- Negaunee Integrative Research CenterField MuseumChicagoIllinoisUSA
- Present address:
University of Kansas Biodiversity InstituteLawrenceKansasUSA
| | | | | | - John M. Bates
- Negaunee Integrative Research CenterField MuseumChicagoIllinoisUSA
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3
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The Discontinuous Elevational Distribution of an Ungulate at the Regional Scale: Implications for Speciation and Conservation. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11123565. [PMID: 34944340 PMCID: PMC8697900 DOI: 10.3390/ani11123565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The Himalaya blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) in Baima Snow Mountain is found to exhibit a distinctive bimodal distribution along elevation gradient contrasting the unimodal distributions of most species. The first distributional peak of Himalaya blue sheep was in scree habitat around 4100 m a.s.l., while the second peak was in the dry-hot valley around 2600 m. Geographic separation from the original population along elevation suggested that population at lower elevation could be a separate species ecologically, or a taxa ongoing differentiation. Invasive species Opuntia ficus-indica, which colonized the region six hundred years ago, may have formed new foraging niche to support population at lower elevation. Our results suggested conservation measures should pay attention to taxa ongoing differentiation, and consider the possible active effect of biological invasion. Abstract The elevational range where montane species live is a key factor of spatial niche partitioning, because the limits of such ranges are influenced by interspecies interaction, abiotic stress, and dispersal barriers. At the regional scale, unimodal distributions of single species along the elevation gradient have often been reported, while discontinuous patterns, such as bimodal distributions, and potential ecological implications have been rarely discussed. Here, we used extensive camera trap records to reveal the elevation distribution of Himalaya blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and its co-existence with other ground animal communities along a slope of Baima Snow Mountain, southwest China. The results show that Himalaya blue sheep exhibited a distinctive bimodal distribution along the elevation gradient contrasting the unimodal distributions found for the other ungulates in Baima snow mountain. A first distributional peak was represented by a population habituating in scree habitat around 4100 m, and a second peak was found in the dry-hot valley around 2600 m. The two distinct populations co-existed with disparate animal communities and these assemblages were similar both in the dry and rainy seasons. The extremely low abundance of blue sheep observed in the densely forested belt at mid-elevation indicates that vegetation rather than temperature is responsible for such segregation. The low-elevation population relied highly on Opuntia ficus-indica, an invasive cactus species that colonized the region six hundred years ago, as food resource. Being the only animal that developed a strategy to feed on this spiky plant, we suggest invasive species may have formed new foraging niche to support blue sheep population in lower elevation hot-dry river valleys, resulting in the geographic separation from the original population and a potential morphological differentiation, as recorded. These findings emphasize the important conservation values of role of ecological functions to identify different taxa, and conservation values of apparent similar species of different ecological functions.
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Yang B, Zhang Z, Yang C, Wang Y, Orr MC, Hongbin W, Zhang AB. Identification of Species by Combining Molecular and Morphological Data Using Convolutional Neural Networks. Syst Biol 2021; 71:690-705. [PMID: 34524452 DOI: 10.1093/sysbio/syab076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Integrative taxonomy is central to modern taxonomy and systematic biology, including behaviour, niche preference, distribution, morphological analysis and DNA barcoding. However, decades of use demonstrate that these methods can face challenges when used in isolation, for instance, potential misidentifications due to phenotypic plasticity for morphological methods, and incorrect identifications because of introgression, incomplete lineage sorting and horizontal gene transfer for DNA barcoding. Although researchers have advocated the use of integrative taxonomy, few detailed algorithms have been proposed. Here, we develop a convolutional neural network method (morphology-molecule network (MMNet)) that integrates morphological and molecular data for species identification. The newly proposed method (MMNet) worked better than four currently-available alternative methods when tested with 10 independent datasets representing varying genetic diversity from different taxa. High accuracies were achieved for all groups, including beetles (98.1% of 123 species), butterflies (98.8% of 24 species), fishes (96.3% of 214 species) and moths (96.4% of 150 total species). Further, MMNet demonstrated a high degree of accuracy (>98%) in four datasets including closely related species from the same genus. The average accuracy of two modest sub-genomic (single nucleotide polymorphism) datasets, comprising eight putative subspecies respectively, is 90%. Additional tests show that the success rate of species identification under this method most strongly depends on the amount of training data, and is robust to sequence length and image size. Analyses on the contribution of different data types (image versus gene) indicate that both morphological and genetic data are important to the model, and that genetic data contribute slightly more. The approaches developed here serve as a foundation for the future integration of multi-modal information for integrative taxonomy, such as image, audio, video, 3D scanning and biosensor data, to characterize organisms more comprehensively as a basis for improved investigation, monitoring and conservation of biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenxin Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of 3D Information Acquisition and Application, MOE, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China.,Beijing Laboratory of Water Resources Security, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China.,Base of the State Key Laboratory of Urban Environmental Process and Digital, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China
| | - Caiqing Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China
| | - Michael C Orr
- Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, People's Republic of China
| | - Wang Hongbin
- Museum of Forest Biodiversity, Research Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Protection, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, People's Republic of China
| | - Ai-Bing Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China
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5
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Freeman BG, Pennell MW. The latitudinal taxonomy gradient. Trends Ecol Evol 2021; 36:778-786. [PMID: 34074540 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2021.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Emerging large-scale datasets coupled with statistical advances have provided new insights into the processes that generate the latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG). But many of these studies run into an old, if often underappreciated, problem: The interpretation of the data critically depends on the consistent application of criteria to define what constitutes a species. This is particularly pernicious for the LDG because good species have been easier to recognize in temperate than in tropical regions. We provide evidence that this latitudinal taxonomy gradient exists, discuss how this potentially impacts inferences about latitudinal variation in ecoevolutionary processes such as population differentiation and speciation, and provide a roadmap for how to mitigate taxonomic biases in the study of biodiversity patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin G Freeman
- Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6T1Z4; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
| | - Matthew W Pennell
- Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6T1Z4; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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6
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Tyler J, Bonfitto MT, Clucas GV, Reddy S, Younger JL. Morphometric and genetic evidence for four species of gentoo penguin. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:13836-13846. [PMID: 33391684 PMCID: PMC7771148 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua) are found across the Southern Ocean with a circumpolar distribution and notable genetic and morphological variation across their geographic range. Whether this geographic variation represents species-level diversity has yet to be investigated in an integrative taxonomic framework. Here, we show that four distinct populations of gentoo penguins (Iles Kerguelen, Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and South Shetlands/Western Antarctic Peninsula) are genetically and morphologically distinct from one another. We present here a revised taxonomic treatment including formal nomenclatural changes. We suggest the designation of four species of gentoo penguin: P. papua in the Falkland Islands, P. ellsworthi in the South Shetland Islands/Western Antarctic Peninsula, P. taeniata in Iles Kerguelen, and a new gentoo species P. poncetii, described herein, in South Georgia. These findings of cryptic diversity add to many other such findings across the avian tree of life in recent years. Our results further highlight the importance of reassessing species boundaries as methodological advances are made, particularly for taxa of conservation concern. We recommend reassessment by the IUCN of each species, particularly P. taeniata and P. poncetii, which both show evidence of decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Tyler
- Department of Biology & BiochemistryMilner Centre for EvolutionUniversity of BathBathUK
| | | | - Gemma V. Clucas
- Cornell Lab of OrnithologyCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
- Cornell Atkinson Center for a Sustainable FutureCornell UniversityIthacaNYUSA
| | - Sushma Reddy
- Bell Museum of Natural HistoryDepartment of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation BiologyUniversity of MinnesotaSt. PaulMNUSA
| | - Jane L. Younger
- Department of Biology & BiochemistryMilner Centre for EvolutionUniversity of BathBathUK
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Molecular Species Delimitation of Larks (Aves: Alaudidae), and Integrative Taxonomy of the Genus Calandrella, with the Description of a Range-Restricted African Relic Taxon. DIVERSITY 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/d12110428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Larks constitute an avian family of exceptional cryptic diversity and striking examples of convergent evolution. Therefore, traditional morphology-based taxonomy has recurrently failed to reflect evolutionary relationships. While taxonomy ideally should integrate morphology, vocalizations, behaviour, ecology, and genetics, this can be challenging for groups that span several continents including areas that are difficult to access. Here, we combine morphometrics and mitochondrial DNA to evaluate the taxonomy of Calandrella larks, with particular focus on the African C. cinerea and the Asian C. acutirostris complexes. We describe a new range-restricted West African taxon, Calandrella cinerea rufipecta ssp. nov. (type locality: Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria), with an isolated relic population 3000 km from its closest relative in the Rift Valley. We performed molecular species delimitation, employing coalescence-based multi-rate Poisson Tree Processes (mPTP) on cytochrome b sequences across 52 currently recognized lark species, including multiple taxa currently treated as subspecies. Three species-level splits were inferred within the genus Calandrella and another 13 across other genera, primarily among fragmented sub-Saharan taxa and taxa distributed from Northwest Africa to Arabia or East Africa. Previously unknown divergences date back as far as to the Miocene, indicating the presence of currently unrecognized species. However, we stress that taxonomic decisions should not be based on single datasets, such as mitochondrial DNA, although analyses of mitochondrial DNA can be a good indicator of taxa in need of further integrative taxonomic assessment.
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8
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Lima LR, Bruschi DP, Do Nascimento FAC, Scherrer De Araújo PV, Costa LP, Thomé MTC, Garda AA, Zattera ML, Mott T. Below the waterline: cryptic diversity of aquatic pipid frogs (Pipa carvalhoi) unveiled through an integrative taxonomy approach. SYST BIODIVERS 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/14772000.2020.1795742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luana Rodrigues Lima
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Diversidade Biológica e Conservação nos Trópicos, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, 57072-900, Alagoas, Brasil
- Laboratório de Biologia Integrativa, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, 57072-900, Alagoas, Brasil
| | - Daniel Pacheco Bruschi
- Programa de Pós-graduaçäo em Genética, Departamento de Genética, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brasil
| | - Filipe Augusto Cavalcanti Do Nascimento
- Laboratório de Biologia Integrativa, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, 57072-900, Alagoas, Brasil
- Setor de Herpetologia, Museu de História Natural, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, 57010-020, Alagoas, Brasil
| | - Paulo Victor Scherrer De Araújo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Centro de Ciências Humanas e Naturais, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, 29075-910, Espírito Santo, Brasil
| | - Leonora Pires Costa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Centro de Ciências Humanas e Naturais, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, 29075-910, Espírito Santo, Brasil
| | - Maria Tereza Chiarioni Thomé
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Diversidade Biológica e Conservação nos Trópicos, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, 57072-900, Alagoas, Brasil
- Laboratório de Biologia Integrativa, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, 57072-900, Alagoas, Brasil
| | - Adrian Antonio Garda
- Departamento de Botânica e Zoologia, Centro de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, 59072-970, Rio Grande do Norte, Brasil
| | - Michelle Louise Zattera
- Programa de Pós-graduaçäo em Genética, Departamento de Genética, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brasil
| | - Tamí Mott
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Diversidade Biológica e Conservação nos Trópicos, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, 57072-900, Alagoas, Brasil
- Laboratório de Biologia Integrativa, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, 57072-900, Alagoas, Brasil
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Gamisch A. Oscillayers: A dataset for the study of climatic oscillations over Plio-Pleistocene time-scales at high spatial-temporal resolution. GLOBAL ECOLOGY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY : A JOURNAL OF MACROECOLOGY 2019; 28:1552-1560. [PMID: 31762691 PMCID: PMC6853231 DOI: 10.1111/geb.12979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
MOTIVATION In order to understand how species evolutionarily responded to Plio-Pleistocene climate oscillations (e.g. in terms of speciation, extinction, migration and adaptation), it is first important to have a good understanding of those past climate changes per se. This, however, is currently limited due to the lack of global-scale climatic datasets with high temporal resolution spanning the Plio-Pleistocene. To fill this gap, I here present Oscillayers, a global-scale and region-specific bioclim dataset, facilitating the study of climatic oscillations during the last 5.4 million years at high spatial (2.5 arc-minutes) and temporal (10 kyr time periods) resolution. This dataset builds upon interpolated anomalies (Δ layers) between bioclim layers of the present and the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) that are scaled relative to the Plio-Pleistocene global mean temperature curve, derived from benthic stable oxygen isotope ratios, to generate bioclim variables for 539 time periods. Evaluation of the scaled, interpolated estimates of palaeo-climates generated for the Holocene, Last Interglacial and Pliocene showed good agreement with independent general circulation models (GCMs) for respective time periods in terms of pattern correlation and absolute differences. Oscillayers thus provides a new tool for studying spatial-temporal patterns of evolutionary and ecological processes at high temporal and spatial resolution. MAIN TYPES OF VARIABLE CONTAINED Nineteen bioclim variables for time periods throughout the Plio-Pleistocene. Input data and R script to recreate all 19 bioclim variables. SPATIAL LOCATION AND GRAIN Global at 2.5 arc-minutes (4.65 x 4.65 = 21.62 km2 at the equator). TIME PERIOD AND GRAIN The last 5.4 million years. The grain is 10 kyr (= 539 time periods). LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT Data are for terrestrial climates (excluding Antarctica) taking sea level changes into account. SOFTWARE FORMAT All data are available as ASCII grid files.
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10
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Phylogeography of the Rufous Vanga and the role of bioclimatic transition zones in promoting speciation within Madagascar. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2019; 139:106535. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2019.106535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Abstract
It has long been appreciated that analyses of genomic data (e.g., whole genome sequencing or sequence capture) have the potential to reveal the tree of life, but it remains challenging to move from sequence data to a clear understanding of evolutionary history, in part due to the computational challenges of phylogenetic estimation using genome-scale data. Supertree methods solve that challenge because they facilitate a divide-and-conquer approach for large-scale phylogeny inference by integrating smaller subtrees in a computationally efficient manner. Here, we combined information from sequence capture and whole-genome phylogenies using supertree methods. However, the available phylogenomic trees had limited overlap so we used taxon-rich (but not phylogenomic) megaphylogenies to weave them together. This allowed us to construct a phylogenomic supertree, with support values, that included 707 bird species (~7% of avian species diversity). We estimated branch lengths using mitochondrial sequence data and we used these branch lengths to estimate divergence times. Our time-calibrated supertree supports radiation of all three major avian clades (Palaeognathae, Galloanseres, and Neoaves) near the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary. The approach we used will permit the continued addition of taxa to this supertree as new phylogenomic data are published, and it could be applied to other taxa as well.
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12
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Venkatraman MX, Deraad DA, Tsai WLE, Zarza E, Zellmer AJ, Maley JM, Mccormack JE. Cloudy with a chance of speciation: integrative taxonomy reveals extraordinary divergence within a Mesoamerican cloud forest bird. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Madhvi X Venkatraman
- Moore Laboratory of Zoology, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Biology Department, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Devon A Deraad
- Moore Laboratory of Zoology, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Biology Department, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Whitney L E Tsai
- Moore Laboratory of Zoology, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Eugenia Zarza
- Moore Laboratory of Zoology, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | | | - James M Maley
- Moore Laboratory of Zoology, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - John E Mccormack
- Moore Laboratory of Zoology, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Biology Department, Occidental College, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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