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Mobarak H, Mahdipour M, Ghaffari-Nasab A, Rahbarghazi R. Xenogeneic Transplantation Promoted Human Exosome Sequestration in Rat Specific Organs. Adv Pharm Bull 2024; 14:426-433. [PMID: 39206404 PMCID: PMC11347747 DOI: 10.34172/apb.2024.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Here, we aimed to study the distribution pattern of normal and cancer xenogeneic exosomes (Exos) and possible interspecies reactions in a rat model. Methods Exos were isolated from normal Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Diameter size and zeta potential distribution were studied using dynamic light scattering (DLS). The morphology of isolated Exos was monitored by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images. Using western blotting, protein levels of exosomal tetraspanins were detected. For the in vivo study, Dil-labeled normal and cancer Exos were injected into the tail vein (100 µg exosomal protein/rat) three times at 1-hour intervals. After 24 hours, rats were euthanized and the cellular uptake of Exos was monitored in different organs using immunofluorescence staining (IF). Results The size distribution and mean zeta potential of HUVEC and MDA-MB-231 cells Exos were 80±29.94 and 64.77±25.49 nm, and -7.58 and -11.8 mV, respectively. Western blotting revealed CD9, CD81, and CD63 in normal and cancer Exos. The SEM images exhibited typical nano-sized round-shape Exo particles. IF staining indicated sequestration of administrated Exos in splenic tissue and lungs. The distribution of Exo in kidneys, aorta, and hepatic tissue was less. These features were more evident in the group that received cancer Exos. We found no obvious adverse effects in rats that received normal or cancer Exos. Conclusion Normal and cancerous xenogeneic human Exos can be sequestrated prominently in splenic tissue and lungs. Novel delivery approaches and engineering tools are helpful in the target delivery of administrated Exos to the injured sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Halimeh Mobarak
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mahdi Mahdipour
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Reproductive Biology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | | | - Reza Rahbarghazi
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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2
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Moulana MS, Haiaty S, Bazmani A, Shabkhizan R, Moslehian MS, Sadeghsoltani F, Mostafazadeh M, Asadi MR, Talebi M, Jafari Z, Morovati MR, Farzaei MH, Rahbarghazi R. Tumoricidal properties of thymoquinone on human colorectal adenocarcinoma cells via the modulation of autophagy. BMC Complement Med Ther 2024; 24:132. [PMID: 38532470 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-024-04432-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is deadly anaplastic changes in the gastrointestinal tract with high-rate mortality. In recent years, the application of phytocompounds has been extended along with different therapeutic protocols. Here, we monitored the effects of Thymoquinone (TQ) on autophagy via mitochondrial function after modulation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway.Human colorectal adenocarcinoma HT-29 cells were treated with TQ (60 µM) and 15 µM Wnt3a inhibitor (LGK974) for 48 h. The survival rate was evaluated using an MTT assay. The expression of Wnt-related factors (c-Myc, and Axin), angiogenesis (VE-Cadherin), and mitophagy-related factors (PINK1, OPTN) was assessed using real-time PCR assay. Protein levels of autophagy factors (Beclin-1, LC3, and P62) were monitored using western blotting. Using flow cytometry analysis, the intracellular accumulation of Rhodamine 123 was evaluated. The migration properties were analyzed using a scratch wound healing assay.Data indicated that TQ can reduce the viability of HT-29 cells compared to the control cells (p < 0.05). The expression of VE-Cadherin was inhibited while the expression of PINK1 was induced in treated cells (p < 0.05). Both LGK974 and TQ-treated cells exhibited activation of autophagy flux (Beclin-1↑, LC3II/I↑, and p62↓) compared to the control group (p < 0.05). TQ can increase intracellular accumulation of Rhodamine 123, indicating the inhibition of efflux mechanisms in cancer cells. Along with these changes, the migration of cells was also reduced (p < 0.05).TQ is a potential phytocompound to alter the dynamic growth of human colorectal HT-29 cells via the modulation of autophagy, and mitophagy-related mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Saleh Moulana
- Department of Persian Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Sanya Haiaty
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Ahad Bazmani
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Roya Shabkhizan
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Marziyeh Sadat Moslehian
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Sadeghsoltani
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mostafa Mostafazadeh
- Department of Biochemistry and Clinical Laboratories, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Asadi
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mehdi Talebi
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Zahra Jafari
- Department of Persian Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Morovati
- Department of Persian Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hosein Farzaei
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.
- Department of Traditional Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran.
| | - Reza Rahbarghazi
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
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3
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Smith PA. Neuropathic pain; what we know and what we should do about it. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2023; 4:1220034. [PMID: 37810432 PMCID: PMC10559888 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2023.1220034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain can result from injury to, or disease of the nervous system. It is notoriously difficult to treat. Peripheral nerve injury promotes Schwann cell activation and invasion of immunocompetent cells into the site of injury, spinal cord and higher sensory structures such as thalamus and cingulate and sensory cortices. Various cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, monoamines and neuropeptides effect two-way signalling between neurons, glia and immune cells. This promotes sustained hyperexcitability and spontaneous activity in primary afferents that is crucial for onset and persistence of pain as well as misprocessing of sensory information in the spinal cord and supraspinal structures. Much of the current understanding of pain aetiology and identification of drug targets derives from studies of the consequences of peripheral nerve injury in rodent models. Although a vast amount of information has been forthcoming, the translation of this information into the clinical arena has been minimal. Few, if any, major therapeutic approaches have appeared since the mid 1990's. This may reflect failure to recognise differences in pain processing in males vs. females, differences in cellular responses to different types of injury and differences in pain processing in humans vs. animals. Basic science and clinical approaches which seek to bridge this knowledge gap include better assessment of pain in animal models, use of pain models which better emulate human disease, and stratification of human pain phenotypes according to quantitative assessment of signs and symptoms of disease. This can lead to more personalized and effective treatments for individual patients. Significance statement: There is an urgent need to find new treatments for neuropathic pain. Although classical animal models have revealed essential features of pain aetiology such as peripheral and central sensitization and some of the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved, they do not adequately model the multiplicity of disease states or injuries that may bring forth neuropathic pain in the clinic. This review seeks to integrate information from the multiplicity of disciplines that seek to understand neuropathic pain; including immunology, cell biology, electrophysiology and biophysics, anatomy, cell biology, neurology, molecular biology, pharmacology and behavioral science. Beyond this, it underlines ongoing refinements in basic science and clinical practice that will engender improved approaches to pain management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A. Smith
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute and Department of Pharmacology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
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4
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Namini MS, Daneshimehr F, Beheshtizadeh N, Mansouri V, Ai J, Jahromi HK, Ebrahimi-Barough S. Cell-free therapy based on extracellular vesicles: a promising therapeutic strategy for peripheral nerve injury. Stem Cell Res Ther 2023; 14:254. [PMID: 37726794 PMCID: PMC10510237 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-023-03467-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is one of the public health concerns that can result in a loss of sensory or motor function in the areas in which injured and non-injured nerves come together. Up until now, there has been no optimized therapy for complete nerve regeneration after PNI. Exosome-based therapies are an emerging and effective therapeutic strategy for promoting nerve regeneration and functional recovery. Exosomes, as natural extracellular vesicles, contain bioactive molecules for intracellular communications and nervous tissue function, which could overcome the challenges of cell-based therapies. Furthermore, the bioactivity and ability of exosomes to deliver various types of agents, such as proteins and microRNA, have made exosomes a potential approach for neurotherapeutics. However, the type of cell origin, dosage, and targeted delivery of exosomes still pose challenges for the clinical translation of exosome therapeutics. In this review, we have focused on Schwann cell and mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes in nerve tissue regeneration. Also, we expressed the current understanding of MSC-derived exosomes related to nerve regeneration and provided insights for developing a cell-free MSC therapeutic strategy for nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mojdeh Salehi Namini
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Regenerative Medicine Group (REMED), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Daneshimehr
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nima Beheshtizadeh
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Regenerative Medicine Group (REMED), Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran
| | - Vahid Mansouri
- Digestive Disease Research Institute, Shariati Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jafar Ai
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Kargar Jahromi
- Research Center for Noncommunicable Diseases, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran.
| | - Somayeh Ebrahimi-Barough
- Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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5
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Zheng G, Ren J, Shang L, Bao Y. Role of autophagy in the pathogenesis and regulation of pain. Eur J Pharmacol 2023; 955:175859. [PMID: 37429517 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.175859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
Pain is a ubiquitous and highly concerned clinical symptom, usually caused by peripheral or central nervous injury, tissue damage, or other diseases. The long-term existence of pain can seriously affect daily physical function and quality of life and produce great torture on the physiological and psychological levels. However, the complex pathogenesis of pain involving molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways has not been fully elucidated, and managing pain remains highly challenging. As a result, finding new targets to pursue effective and long-term pain treatment strategies is required and urgent. Autophagy is an intracellular degradation and recycling process that maintains tissue homeostasis and energy supply, which can be cytoprotective and is vital in maintaining neural plasticity and proper nervous system function. Much evidence has shown that autophagy dysregulation is linked to the emergence of neuropathic pain, such as postherpetic neuralgia and cancer-related pain. Autophagy has also been connected to pain caused by osteoarthritis and lumbar disc degeneration. It is worth noting that in recent years, studies on traditional Chinese medicine have also proved that several traditional Chinese medicine monomers involve autophagy in the mechanism of pain relief. Therefore, autophagy can serve as a potential regulatory target to provide new ideas and inspiration for pain management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangda Zheng
- Department of Oncology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China.
| | - Juanxia Ren
- Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shenyang, 110847, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Lu Shang
- Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shenyang, 110847, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Yanju Bao
- Department of Oncology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China.
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Jaiswar P, Bhate M, Surolia A. Promotion of degradative autophagy by 6-bromoindirubin-3'-oxime attenuates neuropathy. Biofactors 2023; 49:1074-1084. [PMID: 37249268 DOI: 10.1002/biof.1977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Damage to the central or peripheral nervous system causes neuropathic pain. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress plays a role in peripheral neuropathy. Increase in ER stress is seen in diabetic neuropathy. Inducers of ER stress also give rise to peripheral neuropathy. ER stress leads to the formation of autophagosome but as their degradation is also stalled during ER stress accumulation of autophagosomes is seen. Accumulation of autophagosomes has deleterious effects on cells. In the present study, we show that treatment with tunicamycin (TM) (ER stress inducer) in mice leads to peripheral neuropathy as assessed by Von Frey and Hot plate method. Administration of a promoter of autophagy viz. 6-bromoindirubin-3'-oxime (6-BIO) subsequent to ER stress induced by TM exhibits a decrease in peripheral neuropathy. 6-BIO was also effective in reducing diabetic peripheral neuropathy. To understand the type of autophagy activated, SH-SY5Y cells were treated with 6-BIO after TM treatment. Levels of cathepsin D (CTSD), a marker for degradative autophagy was higher in cells treated with 6-BIO after TM treatment compared to only TM-treated SH-SY5Y cells while levels of Rab8A,-a marker for secretory autophagy was reduced. Furthermore, in parallel during ER stress secretory, we noted increased levels of lysozyme in autophagosomes destined for secretion. Cells treated with 6-BIO showed reduction of lysozyme in secretory autophagosomes. This shows that 6-BIO increased degradative autophagy and reduced the secretory autophagy. 6-BIO also reduced the caspase-3 activity in 6-BIO-treated cells. Thus, 6-BIO reduced neuropathy in animals by activating degradative autophagy and reducing the secretory autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Praveen Jaiswar
- Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | - Mitali Bhate
- Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | - Avadhesha Surolia
- Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
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7
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Salimi L, Seyedaghamiri F, Karimipour M, Mobarak H, Mardi N, Taghavi M, Rahbarghazi R. Physiological and pathological consequences of exosomes at the blood-brain-barrier interface. Cell Commun Signal 2023; 21:118. [PMID: 37208741 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-023-01142-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Blood-brain barrier (BBB) interface with multicellular structure controls strictly the entry of varied circulating macromolecules from the blood-facing surface into the brain parenchyma. Under several pathological conditions within the central nervous system, the integrity of the BBB interface is disrupted due to the abnormal crosstalk between the cellular constituents and the recruitment of inflammatory cells. Exosomes (Exos) are nano-sized extracellular vesicles with diverse therapeutic outcomes. These particles transfer a plethora of signaling molecules with the potential to modulate target cell behavior in a paracrine manner. Here, in the current review article, the therapeutic properties of Exos and their potential in the alleviation of compromised BBB structure were discussed. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Salimi
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Fatemehsadat Seyedaghamiri
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Karimipour
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Halimeh Mobarak
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Narges Mardi
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Maryam Taghavi
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Reza Rahbarghazi
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
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8
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Heidarzadeh M, Zarebkohan A, Rahbarghazi R, Sokullu E. Protein corona and exosomes: new challenges and prospects. Cell Commun Signal 2023; 21:64. [PMID: 36973780 PMCID: PMC10041507 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-023-01089-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in extracellular vesicle (EVs) detection and isolation methods have led to the development of novel therapeutic modalities. Among different types of EVs, exosomes (Exos) can transfer different signaling biomolecules and exhibit several superior features compared to whole-cell-based therapies. Therapeutic factors are normally loaded into the Exo lumen or attached to their surface for improving the on-target delivery rate and regenerative outcomes. Despite these advantages, there are several limitations in the application of Exos in in vivo conditions. It was suggested that a set of proteins and other biological compounds are adsorbed around Exos in aqueous phases and constitute an external layer named protein corona (PC). Studies have shown that PC can affect the physicochemical properties of synthetic and natural nanoparticles (NPs) after introduction in biofluids. Likewise, PC is generated around EVs, especially Exos in in vivo conditions. This review article is a preliminary attempt to address the interfering effects of PC on Exo bioactivity and therapeutic effects. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morteza Heidarzadeh
- Koç University Research Centre for Translational Medicine (KUTTAM), Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Amir Zarebkohan
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Reza Rahbarghazi
- Department of Applied Cell Sciences, Faculty of Advanced Medical Sciences, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
- Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
| | - Emel Sokullu
- Koç University Research Centre for Translational Medicine (KUTTAM), Koç University School of Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
- Biophysics Department, Koç University School of Medicine, Rumeli Feneri, 34450, Sariyer, Istanbul, Turkey
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A Review on Autophagy in Orofacial Neuropathic Pain. Cells 2022; 11:cells11233842. [PMID: 36497100 PMCID: PMC9735968 DOI: 10.3390/cells11233842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Orofacial neuropathic pain indicates pain caused by a lesion or diseases of the somatosensory nervous system. It is challenging for the clinician to diagnose and manage orofacial neuropathic pain conditions due to the considerable variability between individual clinical presentations and a lack of understanding of the mechanisms underlying the etiology and pathogenesis. In the last few decades, researchers have developed diagnostic criteria, questionnaires, and clinical assessment methods for the diagnosis of orofacial neuropathic pain. Recently, researchers have observed the role of autophagy in neuronal dysfunction as well as in the modulation of neuropathic pain. On this basis, in the present review, we highlight the characteristics, classification, and clinical assessment of orofacial neuropathic pain. Additionally, we introduce autophagy and its potential role in the modulation of orofacial neuropathic pain, along with a brief overview of the pathogenesis, which in future may reveal new possible targets for treating this condition.
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