Gout and its comorbidities in the total population of Stockholm

Gout: global epidemiology, risk factors, comorbidities and complications: a narrative review

BACKGROUND

Gout is one of the oldest known diseases and the most common form of inflammatory arthritis. The established risk factors for gout include hyperuricemia, chronic renal disease, genetic, alcohol consumption, dietary factors, diuretic use, hypertension, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Patients with gout have an increased risk of all-cause mortality, particularly from cardiovascular disease, cancer, and infectious diseases. Gout is also associated with several complications, such as nephrolithiasis. This literature review describes the global epidemiology and trends associated with gout, before providing an overview of its risk factors and complications.

METHODS

This research used the narrative review method. Thorough searches were performed in PubMed and Google scholar, up to June 15, 2024, for articles that evaluated the risk factors, comorbidities or complications associated with gout. Moreover, we also included studies that reported the epidemiological characteristics or burden of gout at the global, regional, or national level.

RESULTS

Gout is more prevalent in developed countries, than in developing countries, although its prevalence is increasing globally. In addition, gout is much more prevalent among males than among females. Hyperuricemia has the largest role in the development of gout, although many risk factors contribute to the increasing prevalence of gout, including genes, several medications, and diet. Gout is associated with several comorbidities and complications, which need to be taken into consideration when managing gout. In recent years, gout has been found to be associated with several new comorbidities.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide a comprehensive and informative overview that can be useful for the prevention, diagnosis, and management of gout.

Association between gout and cancers: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to investigate the association between gout and cancer risk.

METHODS

This study was registered with the Prospective Registry for International Systematic Reviews (ID: CRD42023465587). We searched PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane, and Web of Science databases for studies related to gout and cancer risk, with a timeframe from the date the database was created to September 2023. We assessed the methodological quality of the included studies using the Newcastle-Ottawa scale and assessed heterogeneity between studies using the I2 statistic. Depending on the heterogeneity, we calculated pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using fixed-effects or random-effects models. In addition, we performed sensitivity analyses and publication bias tests.

RESULTS

In this study, we conducted a meta-analysis of 6 studies encompassing a total of 1279,804 participants. Our analysis revealed that individuals with gout are at a heightened risk of developing cancer in general (HR = 1.18, 95% CI = 1.04-1.34, P < .001). Moreover, specific types of cancer displayed a significant correlation with gout, including gastric cancer (HR = 1.31, 95% CI = 1.07-1.62, P = .012), liver cancer (HR = 1.24, 95% CI = 1.01-1.52, P < .001), lung cancer (HR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.03-1.53, P = .001), and bladder cancer (HR = 1.57, 95% CI = 1.02-2.41, P < .001). Furthermore, gout exhibited a marginally increased risk for other cancer types, such as head and neck cancer and esophageal cancer, although these associations did not attain statistical significance.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that gout is a risk factor for cancer, especially for stomach, liver, lung, and bladder cancers. Patients with gout have an increased risk of developing overall cancers, lung cancer, liver cancer, stomach cancer, and bladder cancer. However, more high-quality epidemiologic studies are needed to explore the association between gout and individual cancers more accurately.

Diagnosis, Treatment, and Outcomes of Crystalline Arthropathy in the Setting of Total Knee Arthroplasty: A Critical Analysis Review

» Emerging evidence suggests the prevalence of crystalline arthropathy (CA) in the setting of total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is increasing, and diagnosis of CA is often intricate because of symptom overlap with other common postoperative complications such as periprosthetic joint infection (PJI). Consequently, an accurate and timely diagnosis becomes pivotal in guiding the choice of treatment.» CA includes gout and calcium pyrophosphate deposition (CPPD) disease, and accurate diagnosis in patients with prior TKA requires a multifaceted approach. The diagnosis algorithm plays a critical role in determining the appropriate treatment approach.» Management of CA typically involves a conservative strategy, encompassing the administration of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, colchicine, and steroids, regardless of whether patients have undergone prior TKA.» There is conflicting evidence on the effect CA has on the surgical outcomes in postoperative TKA patients. While these patients may expect excellent functional outcomes and pain relief, they may be at a higher risk of complications such as infections, medical complications, and revision procedures.» Additional research is required to fully comprehend the impact of CA on postoperative TKA outcomes and to establish effective strategies for enhancing patient care and optimizing long-term joint function.

Gout in Dalarna, Sweden - a population-based study of gout occurrence and compliance to treatment guidelines

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to describe the incidence and prevalence of gout, describe the use of allopurinol among prevalent gout cases, and determine persistence with allopurinol and degree of compliance with treat-to-target recommendations before and after the publication of Swedish national guidelines in 2016.

METHOD

Prospectively registered data on gout diagnoses and allopurinol prescriptions were used to calculate incidence and prevalence, and the proportion of prevalent patients on allopurinol. Gout patients starting allopurinol during 2013-2015 versus 2016-2018 were compared regarding persistence and compliance with treat-to-target principles.

RESULTS

The incidence of gout was 221-247 per 100 000 person-years during 2014-2019, prevalence in 2018 was 2.45%. Among prevalent cases, the proportion on allopurinol ranged from 21% to 25%. Allopurinol persistence was better for individuals starting therapy during 2016-2018 compared with 2013-2015 (45% vs 39%, p = 0.031), as were several outcomes related to treat-to-target principles, e.g. measuring baseline serum urate (SU) (84% vs 77%, p < 0.001), follow-up SU (50% vs 36%, p < 0.001), and the proportion of patients reaching an SU level < 360 µmol/L (45% vs 30%, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Incidence and prevalence were slightly higher than in previous Swedish reports. Allopurinol use among prevalent gout patients did not increase during 2014-2019. Only a minor improvement in persistence was seen, and a moderate increase in compliance with guidelines, suggesting a need for improved management and extended patient involvement to increase and optimize the use of urate lowering therapy.

Comparison Between Early-Onset and Common Gout: A Systematic Literature Review

INTRODUCTION

Gout is an inflammatory, metabolic disease associated with a high comorbidity burden including cardiovascular disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, hyperlipidemia, renal disease, and metabolic syndrome. Approximately 9.2 million Americans have gout, making prognosis and treatment outcome predictors highly important. About 600,000 Americans have early-onset gout (EOG), generally defined as first gout attack at ≤ 40 years of age. However, data on EOG clinical features, comorbidity profile, and treatment response are sparse; this systematic literature review provides insight.

METHODS

PubMed and American College of Rheumatology (ACR)/European Alliance of the Associations for Rheumatology (EULAR) abstract archives were searched for early-onset gout, "early onset gout," and ("gout" AND "age of onset"). Duplicate, foreign language, single case report, older (before 2016), and irrelevant/data insufficient publications were excluded. The age of diagnosis categorized patients as having common gout (CG, generally > 40 years) or EOG (generally ≤ 40 years). Applicable publications were extensively reviewed/discussed among authors for inclusion/exclusion consensus.

RESULTS

A total of 283 publications were identified, with 46 (35 articles, 10 abstracts) reviewed and 17 (12 articles, 5 abstracts) ultimately included. Eleven reported clinical characteristics, with 6 EOG-CG retrospective/cross-sectional comparisons. Gout diagnosis preceded cardiometabolic comorbidity and renal comorbidities were less prevalent in EOG than CG patients. EOG patients had more severe disease (more gout flares, polyarticular disease), higher pre-therapy serum urate (SU), and worse oral urate-lowering therapy response. Genetics-focused publications reported higher incidences of dysfunctional urate transporter mutations in EOG patients.

CONCLUSIONS

This review suggests that EOG is more recalcitrant to urate-lowering therapy, is associated with urate transporter defects, and carries heavy disease burden. Therefore, early rheumatology referral and urate-lowering in a treat-to-target fashion may benefit EOG patients. Interestingly, EOG patients had fewer cardiometabolic comorbidities at diagnosis than CG patients, presenting a potential "window of opportunity" to attenuate cardiometabolic comorbidity development with SU control. Preventing gout-related suffering and health burden is particularly important in these young EOG patients who will live with gout and its sequelae for decades.

Gout and Hospital Admission for Ambulatory Care-Sensitive Conditions: Risks and Trajectories

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the risks and trajectories of hospital admission for ambulatory care-sensitive conditions (ACSCs) in gout.

METHODS

Among individuals aged 35 years to 85 years residing in Skåne, Sweden, in 2005, those with no doctor-diagnosed gout during 1998 to 2005 (n = 576,659) were followed from January 1, 2006, until a hospital admission for an ACSC, death, relocation outside Skåne, or December 31, 2016. Treating a new gout diagnosis (International Classification of Diseases, 10th revision, code M10) as a time-varying exposure, we used Cox proportional and additive hazard models to estimate the effects of gout on hospital admissions for ACSCs. We investigated the trajectory of hospital admissions for ACSCs from 3 years before to 3 years after gout diagnosis using generalized estimating equations and group-based trajectory modeling in an age-and sex-matched cohort study.

RESULTS

Gout was associated with a 41% increased rate of hospital admission for ACSCs (hazard ratio 1.41, 95% CI 1.35-1.47), corresponding to 121 (95% CI 104-138) more hospital admissions for ACSCs per 10,000 person-years compared with those without gout. Our trajectory analysis showed that higher rates of hospital admission for ACSCs among persons with gout were observed from 3 years before to 3 years after diagnosis, with the highest prevalence rate ratio (2.22, 95% CI 1.92-2.53) at the 3-month period after diagnosis. We identified 3 classes with distinct trajectories of hospital admissions for ACSCs among patients with gout: almost none (88.5%), low-rising (9.7%), and moderate-sharply rising (1.8%). The Charlson Comorbidity Index was the most important predictor of trajectory class membership.

CONCLUSION

Increased risk of hospital admissions for ACSCs in gout highlights the need for better management of the disease through outpatient care, especially among foreign-born, older patients with comorbidities.

Recombinant Human Proteoglycan 4 Regulates Phagocytic Activation of Monocytes and Reduces IL-1β Secretion by Urate Crystal Stimulated Gout PBMCs

Objectives

To compare phagocytic activities of monocytes in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from acute gout patients and normal subjects, examine monosodium urate monohydrate (MSU) crystal-induced IL-1β secretion ± recombinant human proteoglycan 4 (rhPRG4) or interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), and study the anti-inflammatory mechanism of rhPRG4 in MSU stimulated monocytes.

Methods

Acute gout PBMCs were collected from patients in the Emergency Department and normal PBMCs were obtained from a commercial source. Monocytes in PBMCs were identified by flow cytometry. PBMCs were primed with Pam3CSK4 (1μg/mL) for 24h and phagocytic activation of monocytes was determined using fluorescently labeled latex beads. MSU (200μg/mL) stimulated IL-1β secretion was determined by ELISA. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in monocytes was determined fluorometrically. PBMCs were incubated with IL-1RA (250ng/mL) or rhPRG4 (200μg/mL) and bead phagocytosis by monocytes was determined. THP-1 monocytes were treated with MSU crystals ± rhPRG4 and cellular levels of NLRP3 protein, pro-IL-1β, secreted IL-1β, and activities of caspase-1 and protein phosphatase-2A (PP2A) were quantified. The peritoneal influx of inflammatory and anti-inflammatory monocytes and neutrophils in Prg4 deficient mice was studied and the impact of rhPRG4 on immune cell trafficking was assessed.

Results

Enhanced phagocytic activation of gout monocytes under basal conditions (p<0.001) was associated with ROS generation and MSU stimulated IL-1β secretion (p<0.05). rhPRG4 reduced bead phagocytosis by normal and gout monocytes compared to IL-1RA and both treatments were efficacious in reducing IL-1β secretion (p<0.05). rhPRG4 reduced pro-IL-1β content, caspase-1 activity, conversion of pro-IL-1β to mature IL-1β and restored PP2A activity in monocytes (p<0.05). PP2A inhibition reversed rhPRG4’s effects on pro-IL-1β and mature IL-1β in MSU stimulated monocytes. Neutrophils accumulated in peritoneal cavities of Prg4 deficient mice (p<0.01) and rhPRG4 treatment reduced neutrophil accumulation and enhanced anti-inflammatory monocyte influx (p<0.05).

Conclusions

MSU phagocytosis was higher in gout monocytes resulting in higher ROS and IL-1β secretion. rhPRG4 reduced monocyte phagocytic activation to a greater extent than IL-1RA and reduced IL-1β secretion. The anti-inflammatory activity of rhPRG4 in monocytes is partially mediated by PP2A, and in vivo, PRG4 plays a role in regulating the trafficking of immune cells into the site of a gout flare.

The absolute risk of gout by clusters of gout-associated comorbidities and lifestyle factors-30 years follow-up of the Malmö Preventive Project

Background

Gout is predicted by a number of comorbidities and lifestyle factors. We aimed to identify discrete phenotype clusters of these factors in a Swedish population-based health survey. In these clusters, we calculated and compared the incidence and relative risk of gout.

Methods

Cluster analyses were performed to group variables with close proximity and to obtain homogenous clusters of individuals (n = 22,057) in the Malmö Preventive Project (MPP) cohort. Variables clustered included obesity, kidney dysfunction, diabetes mellitus (DM), hypertension, cardiovascular disease (CVD), dyslipidemia, pulmonary dysfunction (PD), smoking, and the use of diuretics. Incidence rates and hazard ratios (HRs) for gout, adjusted for age and sex, were computed for each cluster.

Results

Five clusters (C1–C5) were identified. Cluster C1 (n = 16,063) was characterized by few comorbidities. All participants in C2 (n = 750) had kidney dysfunction (100%), and none had CVD. In C3 (n = 528), 100% had CVD and most participants were smokers (74%). C4 (n = 3673) had the greatest fractions of obesity (34%) and dyslipidemia (74%). In C5 (n = 1043), proportions with DM (51%), hypertension (54%), and diuretics (52%) were highest. C1 was by far the most common in the population (73%), followed by C4 (17%). These two pathways included 86% of incident gout cases. The four smaller clusters (C2–C5) had higher incidence rates and a 2- to 3-fold increased risk for incident gout.

Conclusions

Five distinct clusters based on gout-related comorbidities and lifestyle factors were identified. Most incident gout cases occurred in the cluster of few comorbidities, and the four comorbidity pathways had overall a modest influence on the incidence of gout.

Global epidemiology of gout: prevalence, incidence, treatment patterns and risk factors

Gout is the most common inflammatory arthritis and occurs when hyperuricaemia, sustained elevation of serum urate levels resulting in supersaturation of body tissues with urate, leads to the formation and deposition of monosodium urate crystals in and around the joints. Recent reports of the prevalence and incidence of gout vary widely according to the population studied and methods employed but range from a prevalence of <1% to 6.8% and an incidence of 0.58-2.89 per 1,000 person-years. Gout is more prevalent in men than in women, with increasing age, and in some ethnic groups. Despite rising prevalence and incidence, suboptimal management of gout continues in many countries. Typically, only a third to half of patients with gout receive urate-lowering therapy, which is a definitive, curative treatment, and fewer than a half of patients adhere to treatment. Many gout risk factors exist, including obesity, dietary factors and comorbid conditions. As well as a firmly established increased risk of cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease in those with gout, novel associations of gout with other comorbidities have been reported, including erectile dysfunction, atrial fibrillation, obstructive sleep apnoea, osteoporosis and venous thromboembolism. Discrete patterns of comorbidity clustering in individuals with gout have been described. Increasing prevalence and incidence of obesity and comorbidities are likely to contribute substantially to the rising burden of gout.

Overview of the Associations Between Cancer and Rheumatic Disease

People living with rheumatic diseases frequently encounter cancer, either as a potential harm of antirheumatic therapies or as a comorbidity that alters the conversation about management. This article provides a general overview of the issues related to cancer and rheumatic disease and serves as a springboard for the remaining chapters in this issue. Several topics are reviewed, including epidemiology, bidirectional causal pathways, and issues related to medications. Although uncertainties remain, the issue of cancer is of great importance to patients with rheumatic diseases, and an individualized, person-centered approach to assessment and management is necessary.

Association Between Gout and Injury Risk: A National Retrospective Cohort Study

The association between gout and injury remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the injury risk in patients with gout. Using the Longitudinal Health Insurance Database (LHID) from 2000 to 2010 in Taiwan, patients with gout (group CFG) and those without gout (group C) were enrolled for further analysis. The CFG group was separated into two subgroups (with and without medication) to determine whether the risk of injury was reduced with drug intervention. The follow-up period was defined as the time from the initial diagnosis of gout to the date of injury. A total of 257,442 individuals were enrolled in this study, with 85,814 people in group CFG and 171,628 people in group C. Using Cox regression analysis, group CFG showed a significant increase in the risk of injury. Traffic injuries, poisoning, falls, crushing/cutting/piercing injury, and suicides were prominent among these injuries. Furthermore, when urate-lowing drugs were used to treat the CFG group, there were no significant differences in the occurrence of injury. Patients with gout had an increased risk of injury overall, and drug intervention did not lower the risk of injury in these patients.

Gout and risk of diabetes mellitus: meta-analysis of observational studies

To determine the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) in people with gout, and investigate the relationship between gout and the occurrence of DM. Systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Data sources: MEDLINE, Web of Science, EMBASE and CINAHL databases, hand-searched reference lists, citation history and contact with authors. Eligibility criteria: cohort, case-control or cross-sectional studies which examined the occurrence of DM amongst adults with gout (with or without gout group) in primary care or general population samples. Prevalence and risk estimate meta-analyses were performed using a random-effects model. A total of 23 identified studies matched the inclusion criteria, reporting on a total of 575 284 gout patients. Meta-analyses revealed that the prevalence of DM in gout patients was 16% (95% CI, 14-18%, I² = 99.8%) according to clinical interviews. In the subgroup analysis, the prevalence of DM was higher in the female population (18%, 95%CI 2.7-33.3%) than the male population (12.6%, 95%CI 8.2-17.1%). As age increased, the incidence of diabetes in gout population increased. DM is commonly found among patients with gout. Patients with gout should be actively screened for DM and its consequences.

Educational inequalities in all-cause and cause-specific mortality among people with gout: a register-based matched cohort study in southern Sweden

Background

Gout is the most common inflammatory arthritis with a rising prevalence around the globe. While educational inequalities in incidence and prevalence of gout have been reported, no previous study investigated educational inequality in mortality among people with gout. The aim of this study was to assess absolute and relative educational inequalities in all-cause and cause-specific mortality among people with gout in comparison with an age- and sex-matched cohort free of gout in southern Sweden.

Methods

We identified all residents aged ≥30 years of Skåne region with doctor-diagnosed gout (ICD-10 code M10, n = 24,877) during 1998–2013 and up to 4 randomly selected age- and sex-matched comparators free of gout (reference cohort, n = 99,504). These were followed until death, emigration, or end of 2014. We used additive hazards models and Cox regression adjusted for age, sex, marital status, and country of birth to estimate slope and relative indices of inequality (SII/RII). Three cause-of-death attribution approaches were considered for RII estimation: “underlying cause”, “any mention”, and “weighted multiple-cause”.

Results

Gout patients with the lowest education had 1547 (95% CI: 1001, 2092) more deaths per 100,000 person-years compared with those with the highest education. These absolute inequalities were larger than in the reference population (1255, 95% CI: 1038, 1472). While the contribution of cardiovascular (cancer) mortality to these absolute inequalities was greater (smaller) in men with gout than those without, the opposite was seen among women. Relative inequality in all-cause mortality was smaller in gout (RII 1.29 [1.18, 1.41]) than in the reference population (1.46 [1.38, 1.53]). The weighted multiple-cause approach generally led to larger RIIs than the underlying cause approach.

Conclusions

Our register-based matched cohort study showed that low level of education was associated with increased mortality among gout patients. Although the magnitude of relative inequality was smaller in people with gout compared with those without, the absolute inequalities were greater reflecting a major mortality burden among those with lower education.

Hyperuricemia and gout are associated with cancer incidence and mortality: A meta-analysis based on cohort studies

The association between hyperuricemia or gout and cancer risk has been investigated in various published studies, but their results are conflicting. We conducted a meta-analysis to investigate whether hyperuricemia or gout was associated with the cancer incidence and mortality. Linear and nonlinear trend analyses were conducted to explore the dose-response association between them. The pooled relative risk (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were used to evaluate cancer risk. A total of 24 articles (33 independent studies) were eligible for inclusion. When compared participants with the highest SUA (hyperuricemia) levels and those with the lowest SUA levels, the pooled RR was 1.08 (95% CI, 1.04-1.12), it was significantly associated among males but not among females (males, RR = 1.07; 95% CI, 1.03-1.11; females, RR = 1.06; 95% CI, 0.96-1.17). Hyperuricemia increased total cancer mortality (RR = 1.15; 95% CI, 1.05-1.26), but a significant association was observed in females rather than in males (females: RR = 1.26; 95% CI, 1.09-1.45; males, RR = 1.02; 95% CI, 0.80-1.30). Linear relationships of SUA levels with overall cancer incidence (p for nonlinearity = 0.238) and overall cancer mortality (p for nonlinearity = 0.263) were identified. However, 1 mg/dL increment in SUA levels was weakly significant in overall cancer incidence (RR = 1.01; 95% CI, 1.01-1.01) but not associated with overall cancer mortality (RR = 1.01; 95% CI, 0.99-1.03). Gout was significantly associated with increased cancer incidence (RR = 1.19; 95% CI, 1.12-1.25). In conclusion, Hyperuricemia or gout was associated with higher cancer incidence and mortality. Though a potential linear relationship between them was found, we'd better treat this result with caution.

The association between gout and cardiovascular disease in patients with atrial fibrillation

Objective

Gout is a sign of a disturbed metabolism and associated with atrial fibrillation (AF) and other cardio-vascular diseases. Our aim was to study associations between gout and cardiovascular co-morbidities in patients with AF.

Methods

The study population included all adults (n=12,283) ≥45 years diagnosed with AF visiting 75 primary care centers in Sweden 2001-2007. Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the associations between prevalent gout and cardiovascular co-morbidities. In subsamples we studied incident congestive heart failure (CHF) and ischemic stroke (IS), excluding patients with earlier registered specific diagnosis, using Cox regression (to estimate hazard ratios (HR) with 95% CIs).

Results

Gout was significantly and positively associated with CHF, obesity and diabetes among men and women, and among men also with hypertension and coronary heart disease. Prevalent gout was negatively associated with incident IS (HR and 95% CI: 0.64, 0.49-0.82; 0.50, 0.39-0.64) in both full model (adjusted for sex, age, socio-economic factors and comorbidities) and CHA₂DS₂-VASc model (adjusted for CHA₂DS₂-VASc, sex and age). Adding gout to full model increased Harrell's C by 1% in CHA₂DS₂-VASc model.

Conclusions

In this clinical setting we found gout to be associated with most cardiometabolic diseases except cerebrovascular diseases, and with decreased risk of IS, with gout adding significantly to the predictive value compared to CHA₂DS₂-VASc without gout included.

Increasing trend of asymptomatic hyperuricemia under treatment with urate-lowering drugs in Japan

Objectives: To describe recent trends in the prevalence of gout and asymptomatic hyperuricemia regarding urate-lowering treatment (ULT) in Japan. Methods: A database of health insurance claims managed by the Japan Medical Data Center was used to estimate the annual prevalence of gout and asymptomatic hyperuricemia during 2010-2014. ULT was evaluated for status of the two diseases during the same period. The significance of time trends was evaluated by Cochrane-Armitage trend test. Results: The prevalence of physician-diagnosed gout in men aged 20-64 years was 1.54% (95% CI: 1.49%-1.58%) in 2010, with a slight but significant (p < 0.001) annual increase, up to 1.66% (95% CI: 1.62%-1.71%) in 2014. In women, gout prevalence was somewhat constant about 0.09% during 2010-2014. Among male patients with gout, 78% received ULT. The prevalence of male patients with asymptomatic hyperuricemia in the same age range, who received ULT, increased significantly from 1.77% (95% CI: 1.72%-1.81%) to 2.14% (95% CI: 2.09%-2.19%) during 2010-2014 (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Gout prevalence in adult men in Japan has increased significantly in recent years. The prevalence of asymptomatic hyperuricemia under ULT has also increased significantly and was higher than that of gout.

The risk of clinically diagnosed gout by serum urate levels: results from 30 years follow-up of the Malmö Preventive Project cohort in southern Sweden

Background

Hyperuricemia (HU) is in the causal pathway for developing clinical gout. There are few population-based assessments of the absolute and relative risk of clinically diagnosed incident gout in subjects with HU. We aimed to explore the long-term risk of developing incident gout among asymptomatic adults with different levels of serum urate (SU).

Methods

Malmö Preventive Project was a population-based screening program for cardiovascular risk factors, alcohol abuse, and breast cancer in Malmö, Sweden. The study population was screened between 1974 and 1992. At baseline, subjects were assessed with a questionnaire, physical examination, and laboratory tests. Follow-up ended at first gout diagnosis, death, moving from area, or December 31, 2014. Incident gout (using ICD10 codes) was diagnosed based on national registers for specialized inpatient and outpatient care, and from 1998 onward in the Skåne Healthcare Register including primary healthcare. Incidence rates, absolute risk, hazard ratios (HRs) and potentially associated factors were analyzed by baseline SU levels, i.e. normal levels (≤ 360 μmol/L); 361–405 (levels below tissue solubility of SU), and > 405 (HU), overall, and by sex.

Results

Overall, 1275 individuals [3.8%; 1014 men (4.5%) and 261 women (2.4%)] of the 33,346 study participants (mean age: 45.7 (SD: 7.4), 67% men), developed incident gout during follow-up (mean 28.2 years). Of those with HU, 14.7% of men and 19.5% of women developed gout. Compared to subjects in the lowest SU category, the age-adjusted HR in men increased from 2.7 to 6.4, and in women from 4.4 to 13.1 with increasing baseline SU category, and with a statistically significant interaction of sex (p < 0.001). Body mass index, estimated glomerular filtration rate (negative), triglycerides, alcohol risk behavior (only in men), and comorbidities such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes were strongly associated with SU at baseline in both sexes.

Conclusions

The absolute risk for developing clinically diagnosed gout over 30 years in middle-aged subjects was 3.8%, and increased progressively in both men and women in relation to baseline SU. This risk increase was significantly higher in women than in men, whereas the associations between baseline risk markers and SU levels were similar in both sexes.

Burden of gout in the Nordic region, 1990-2015: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015

OBJECTIVE

To explore the burden of gout in the Nordic region, with a population around 27 million in 2015 distributed across six countries.

METHOD

We used the findings of the 2015 Global Burden of Diseases study to report prevalence and disability associated with gout in the Nordic region.

RESULTS

From 1990 to 2015, the number of prevalent gout cases rose by 30% to 252 967 [95% uncertainty interval (UI) 223 478‒287 288] in the Nordic region. In 2015, gout contributed to 7982 (95% UI 5431‒10 800) years lived with disability (YLDs) in the region, an increase of 29% (95% UI 24‒35%) from 1990. While the crude YLD rate of gout increased by 12.9% (95% UI 7.8‒18.1%) between 1990 and 2015, the age-standardized YLD rate remained stable. Gout was ranked as the 63rd leading cause of total YLDs in the region in 2015, with the highest rank in men aged 55-59 years (38th leading cause of YLDs). The corresponding rank at the global level was 94. Of 195 countries studied, four Nordic countries [Greenland (2nd), Iceland (12th), Finland (14th), and Sweden (15th)] were among the top 15 countries with the highest age-standardized YLD rate of gout.

CONCLUSION

The burden of gout is rising in the Nordic region. Gout's contribution to the total burden of diseases in the region is more significant than the global average. Expected increases in gout burden owing to population growth and ageing call for stronger preventive and therapeutic strategies for gout management in Nordic countries.

Effectiveness of an electronic patient-centred self-management tool for gout sufferers: a cluster randomised controlled trial protocol

INTRODUCTION

Gout is increasing despite effective therapies to lower serum urate concentrations to 0.36 mmol/L or less, which, if sustained, significantly reduces acute attacks of gout. Adherence to urate-lowering therapy (ULT) is poor, with rates of less than 50% 1 year after initiation of ULT. Attempts to increase adherence in gout patients have been disappointing. We aim to evaluate the effectiveness of use of a personal, self-management, 'smartphone' application (app) to achieve target serum urate concentrations in people with gout. We hypothesise that personalised feedback of serum urate concentrations will improve adherence to ULT.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Setting and designPrimary care. A prospective, cluster randomised (by general practitioner (GP) practices), controlled trial.

PARTICIPANTS

GP practices will be randomised to either intervention or control clusters with their patients allocated to the same cluster.

INTERVENTION

The intervention group will have access to the Healthy.me app tailored for the self-management of gout. The control group patients will have access to the same app modified to remove all functions except the Gout Attack Diary.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOMES

The proportion of patients whose serum urate concentrations are less than or equal to 0.36 mmol/L after 6 months. Secondary outcomes will be proportions of patients achieving target urate concentrations at 12 months, ULT adherence rates, serum urate concentrations at 6 and 12 months, rates of attacks of gout, quality of life estimations and process and economic evaluations. The study is designed to detect a ≥30% improvement in the intervention group above the expected 50% achievement of target serum urate at 6 months in the control group: power 0.80, significance level 0.05, assumed 'dropout' rate 20%.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This study has been approved by the University of New South Wales Human Research Ethics Committee. Study findings will be disseminated in international conferences and peer-reviewed journal.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

ACTRN12616000455460.

Gout in immigrant groups: a cohort study in Sweden

Our aim was to study the association between country of birth and incidence of gout in different immigrant groups in Sweden. The study population included the whole population of Sweden. Gout was defined as having at least one registered diagnosis in the National Patient Register. The association between incidence of gout and country of birth was assessed by Cox regression, with hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), using Swedish-born individuals as referents. All models were conducted in both men and women, and the full model was adjusted for age, place of residence in Sweden, educational level, marital status, neighbourhood socio-economic status and co-morbidities. The risk of gout varied by country of origin, with highest estimates, compared to Swedish born, in fully adjusted models among men from Iraq (HR 1.82, 95% CI 1.54-2.16), and Russia (HR 1.69, 95% CI 1.26-2.27), and also high among men from Austria, Poland, Africa and Asian countries outside the Middle East; and among women from Africa (HR 2.23, 95% CI 1.50-3.31), Hungary (HR 1.98, 95% CI 1.45-2.71), Iraq (HR 1.76, 95% CI 1.13-2.74) and Austria (HR 1.70, 95% CI 1.07-2.70), and also high among women from Poland. The risk of gout was lower among men from Greece, Spain, Nordic countries (except Finland) and Latin America and among women from Southern Europe, compared to their Swedish counterparts. The increased risk of gout among several immigrant groups is likely explained by a high cardio-metabolic risk factor pattern needing attention.

Prevalence and incidence of gout in southern Sweden from the socioeconomic perspective

OBJECTIVES

To estimate the prevalence and cumulative incidence of gout in southern Sweden with respect to socioeconomic status.

METHODS

Among residents of Skåne region in the year 2013 (total population 1.3 million), adult persons (age 18 years +) who between 1998 and 2013 received a diagnosis of gout (International Classification of Disease 10th Edition (ICD-10) code M10) by any physician were identified using the Skåne Healthcare Register. We calculated the point prevalence by end of 2013 and annual cumulative incidence in 2013 standardised to the whole Skåne population according to sex, individual information on occupation (white collar/blue collar), income (low/middle/high) and level of education (primary school/high school/university).

RESULTS

The crude 2013 point prevalence of gout and 2013 cumulative incidence (95% CI) were 1.69% (1.66% to 1.71%) and 24 cases per 10 000 persons (23-25), respectively. Compared to women, men had higher point prevalence (2.44% (2.40% to 2.49%) vs 0.96% (0.93% to 0.98%)) and higher annual cumulative incidence (33 cases per 10 000 (32-35)) versus 15 (14-16)). These figures increased with higher age but decreased with higher level of education, being the lowest in individuals with a university degree. Persons with middle income had highest point prevalence and cumulative incidence of gout, while those with white collar occupations had the lowest.

CONCLUSIONS

Gout is the most common inflammatory arthritis in southern Sweden with a prevalence of ∼1.7% in the adult population. There is a socioeconomic gradient with more gout present in the lower level of education and with more manual labour.

Incidence and prevalence of gout in Western Sweden

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to describe prevalence and trends in the incidence of gout and patterns of urate-lowering treatment (ULT) in the Western Swedish Health Care Region (WSHCR) from 2002 to 2012.

METHODS

We used regional and national healthcare registers to estimate the prevalence and incidence of gout in 2012, and trends in incidence for each calendar year from 2005 to 2012. We also investigated the pattern of ULT for gout using the Swedish Prescribed Drug Register.

RESULTS

In 2012, in the population aged 20 years and above, the prevalence of gout was 1.8 % (95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.77 to 1.82) and the incidence was 190 cases (95 % CI 180 to 200) per 100,000 person-years. Applying more strict definitions for a gout case rendered a prevalence of 1.36 % (95 % CI 1.34 to 1.38) and 0.5 (95 % CI 0.49 to 0.51) per 100,000 person-years, respectively. The incidence of gout increased steadily and significantly from 2005 to 2012, with an almost 50 % increase in the total population. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of gout in rural compared to urban areas. ULT was dispensed to only 42 % of patients with gout in 2012 who had ever been diagnosed with gout during the preceding 10-year period.

CONCLUSIONS

Gout is the most common arthritic disease in WSHCR, Sweden, and has increased substantially over the last decade, with only a minority of prevalent cases in 2012 receiving ULT.