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Porter ME, Hernandez AV, Gervais CR, Rummer JL. Aquatic Walking and Swimming Kinematics of Neonate and Juvenile Epaulette Sharks. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:1710-1724. [PMID: 35896482 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The epaulette shark, Hemiscyllium ocellatum, is a small, reef-dwelling, benthic shark that-using its paired fins-can walk, both in and out of water. Within the reef flats, this species experiences short periods of elevated CO2 and hypoxia as well as fluctuating temperatures as reef flats become isolated with the outgoing tide. Past studies have shown that this species is robust (i.e., respiratory and metabolic performance, behavior) to climate change-relevant elevated CO2 levels as well as hypoxia and anoxia tolerant. However, epaulette shark embryos reared under ocean warming conditions hatch earlier and smaller, with altered patterns and coloration, and with higher metabolic costs than their current-day counterparts. Findings to date suggest that this species has adaptations to tolerate some, but perhaps not all, of the challenging conditions predicted for the 21st century. As such, the epaulette shark is emerging as a model system to understand vertebrate physiology in changing oceans. Yet, few studies have investigated the kinematics of walking and swimming, which may be vital to their biological fitness, considering their habitat and propensity for challenging environmental conditions. Given that neonates retain embryonic nutrition via an internalized yolk sac, resulting in a bulbous abdomen, while juveniles actively forage for worms, crustaceans, and small fishes, we hypothesized that difference in body shape over early ontogeny would affect locomotor performance. To test this, we examined neonate and juvenile locomotor kinematics during the three aquatic gaits they utilize-slow-to-medium walking, fast walking, and swimming-using 13 anatomical landmarks along the fins, girdles, and body midline. We found that differences in body shape did not alter kinematics between neonates and juveniles. Overall velocity, fin rotation, axial bending, and tail beat frequency and amplitude were consistent between early life stages. Data suggest that the locomotor kinematics are maintained between neonate and juvenile epaulette sharks, even as their feeding strategy changes. Studying epaulette shark locomotion allows us to understand this-and perhaps related-species' ability to move within and away from challenging conditions in their habitats. Such locomotor traits may not only be key to survival, in general, as a small, benthic mesopredator (i.e., movements required to maneuver into small reef crevices to avoid aerial and aquatic predators), but also be related to their sustained physiological performance under challenging environmental conditions, including those associated with climate change-a topic worthy of future investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne E Porter
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
| | - Andrea V Hernandez
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431, USA
| | - Connor R Gervais
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Jodie L Rummer
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia.,College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
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Palecek AM, Schoenfuss HL, Blob RW. Sucker Shapes, Skeletons and Bioinspiration: How Hard and Soft Tissue Morphology Generates Adhesive Performance in Waterfall Climbing Goby Fishes. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:934-944. [PMID: 35767861 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Many teleost fishes, such as gobies, have fused their paired pelvic fins into an adhesive disc. Gobies can use their pelvic suckers to generate passive adhesive forces (as in engineered suction cups) and different species exhibit a range of adhesive performance, with some even able to climb waterfalls. Previous studies have documented that, in the Hawaiian Islands, species capable of climbing higher waterfalls produce the highest passive pull-off forces, and species found at higher elevation sites are likely to have more rounded suction discs than those found in the lowest stream segments. Morphology of the pelvic girdle also varies between species, with more robust skeletons in taxa with superior passive adhesion. To investigate what factors impact the passive adhesive performance of waterfall climbing gobies, we tested biomimetic suction cups designed with a range of shapes and embedded bioinspired "skeletons" based on micro-CT scans of goby pelvic girdles. We found that while the presence of an internal skeleton may provide some support against failure, the performance of suction cups may be more strongly affected by their external shape. Nonetheless, factors besides external shape and skeletal morphology may still have a stronger influence on sucker tenacity. Our results suggest that the relationship between suction disc morphology and adhesive performance may be influenced by a variety of physical factors, and live animal performance likely is further complicated by muscle activation and climbing behavior. These results have implications for the evolution of suction disc shape in adhesive fishes and for improving the design of biomimetic suction cups.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Palecek
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - H L Schoenfuss
- Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory, Saint Cloud State University, Saint Cloud, MN 56301, USA
| | - R W Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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Fox CH, Gibb AC, Summers AP, Bemis WE. Benthic walking, bounding, and maneuvering in flatfishes (Pleuronectiformes: Pleuronectidae): New vertebrate gaits. ZOOLOGY 2018; 130:19-29. [PMID: 30502835 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Video-based observations of voluntary movements reveal that six species of pleuronectid flatfishes use sequential portions of long-based dorsal and anal fins as "feet" (hereafter, fin-feet) to move on the substrate. All six species used a gait that we term "walking," which produced constant forward movement, and several of these species also used a second gait that we call "bounding" for intermittent movements over the substrate. We selected Pacific Sand Sole, Psettichthys melanostictus, and English Sole, Parophrys vetulus, for kinematic analyses of these two gaits. Psettichthys melanostictus consistently used walking for benthic locomotion; Parophrys vetulus primarily used a bounding gait. During forward walking, a fin ray swings up off the substrate, protracts and converges with neighboring fin rays to contribute to a fin-foot. The fin-foot pushes down on the substrate and rotates posteriorly by sequential recruitment of fin rays, a pattern known as a metachronal wave. As one fin-foot passes off the posterior end of the fin, a new fin-foot forms anteriorly. During bounding, undulations of the body and tail assist one or two waves of fin-feet, producing rapid but intermittent forward acceleration of the body. Flatfishes also use fin-feet to maneuver on the substrate. The Starry Flounder, Platichthys stellatus, performs near zero displacement rotation by running waves of fin-feet in opposing directions along the dorsal and anal fins. Although other teleosts use specialized pectoral fin rays for bottom walking (e.g., Sea Robins: Triglidae), the duplication of structures and patterns of movement in the median fins of flatfishes more closely resembles metachronal motions of millipede feet or the parapodia of polychaete worms. Sequential use of median fin rays in flatfishes resembles that of other teleosts that swim with elongate median fins, including Amiiformes, Gymnotiformes, and some Tetraodontiformes, but flatfishes offer a novel form of substrate locomotion based on dorsal and anal fins.
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Affiliation(s)
- C H Fox
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Corson Hall, 215 Tower Rd., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
| | - A C Gibb
- Friday Harbor Laboratories, 614-698 University Rd., University of Washington, Friday Harbor, WA, 98250, USA.
| | - A P Summers
- Department of Biological Sciences, 617 South Beaver St., Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, 86011, USA.
| | - W E Bemis
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University Museum of Vertebrates, Corson Hall, 215 Tower Rd., Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
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Kolmann MA, Welch KC, Summers AP, Lovejoy NR. Always chew your food: freshwater stingrays use mastication to process tough insect prey. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2016.1392. [PMID: 27629029 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.1392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Chewing, characterized by shearing jaw motions and high-crowned molar teeth, is considered an evolutionary innovation that spurred dietary diversification and evolutionary radiation of mammals. Complex prey-processing behaviours have been thought to be lacking in fishes and other vertebrates, despite the fact that many of these animals feed on tough prey, like insects or even grasses. We investigated prey capture and processing in the insect-feeding freshwater stingray Potamotrygon motoro using high-speed videography. We find that Potamotrygon motoro uses asymmetrical motion of the jaws, effectively chewing, to dismantle insect prey. However, CT scanning suggests that this species has simple teeth. These findings suggest that in contrast to mammalian chewing, asymmetrical jaw action is sufficient for mastication in other vertebrates. We also determined that prey capture in these rays occurs through rapid uplift of the pectoral fins, sucking prey beneath the ray's body, thereby dissociating the jaws from a prey capture role. We suggest that the decoupling of prey capture and processing facilitated the evolution of a highly kinetic feeding apparatus in batoid fishes, giving these animals an ability to consume a wide variety of prey, including molluscs, fishes, aquatic insect larvae and crustaceans. We propose Potamotrygon as a model system for understanding evolutionary convergence of prey processing and chewing in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A Kolmann
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Canada Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Kenneth C Welch
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Canada
| | - Adam P Summers
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Friday Harbor Laboratories, Friday Harbor, WA, USA
| | - Nathan R Lovejoy
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Canada Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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Trackways Produced by Lungfish During Terrestrial Locomotion. Sci Rep 2016; 6:33734. [PMID: 27670758 PMCID: PMC5037403 DOI: 10.1038/srep33734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Some primarily aquatic vertebrates make brief forays onto land, creating traces as they do. A lack of studies on aquatic trackmakers raises the possibility that such traces may be ignored or misidentified in the fossil record. Several terrestrial Actinopterygian and Sarcopterygian species have previously been proposed as possible models for ancestral tetrapod locomotion, despite extant fishes being quite distinct from Devonian fishes, both morphologically and phylogenetically. Although locomotion has been well-studied in some of these taxa, trackway production has not. We recorded terrestrial locomotion of a 35 cm African lungfish (Protopterus annectens; Dipnoi: Sarcopterygii) on compliant sediment. Terrestrial movement in the lungfish is accomplished by planting the head and then pivoting the trunk. Impressions are formed where the head impacts the substrate, while the body and fins produce few traces. The head leaves a series of alternating left-right impressions, where each impact can appear as two separate semi-circular impressions created by the upper and lower jaws, bearing some similarity to fossil traces interpreted as footprints. Further studies of trackways of extant terrestrial fishes are necessary to understand the behavioural repertoire that may be represented in the fossil track record.
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Di Santo V, Blevins EL, Lauder GV. Batoid fish locomotion: effects of speed on pectoral fin deformation in the little skate Leucoraja erinacea. J Exp Biol 2016; 220:705-712. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.148767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Most batoid fishes have a unique swimming mode in which thrust is generated by either oscillating or undulating expanded pectoral fins that form a disc. Only one previous study of the freshwater stingray has quantified three-dimensional motions of the wing, and no comparable data are available for marine batoid species that may differ considerably in their mode of locomotion. Here we investigate three-dimensional kinematics of the pectoral wing of the little skate, Leucoraja erinacea, swimming steadily at two speeds (1 and 2 body lengths per second, BL×s−1). We measured the motion of nine points in three dimensions during wing oscillation and determined that there are significant differences in movement amplitude among wing locations, as well as significant differences as speed increases in body angle, wing beat frequency, and speed of the traveling wave on the wing. In addition, we analyzed differences in wing curvature with swimming speed. At 1 BL×s−1, the pectoral wing is convex in shape during the downstroke along the medio-lateral fin midline, but at 2 BL×s−1 the pectoral fin at this location cups into the flow indicating active curvature control and fin stiffening. Wing kinematics of the little skate differed considerably from previous work on the freshwater stingray, which does not show active cupping of the whole fin on the downstroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Di Santo
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Erin L. Blevins
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
- The Winsor School, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
| | - George V. Lauder
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
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Abstract
Research on fish locomotion has expanded greatly in recent years as new approaches have been brought to bear on a classical field of study. Detailed analyses of patterns of body and fin motion and the effects of these movements on water flow patterns have helped scientists understand the causes and effects of hydrodynamic patterns produced by swimming fish. Recent developments include the study of the center-of-mass motion of swimming fish and the use of volumetric imaging systems that allow three-dimensional instantaneous snapshots of wake flow patterns. The large numbers of swimming fish in the oceans and the vorticity present in fin and body wakes support the hypothesis that fish contribute significantly to the mixing of ocean waters. New developments in fish robotics have enhanced understanding of the physical principles underlying aquatic propulsion and allowed intriguing biological features, such as the structure of shark skin, to be studied in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- George V Lauder
- Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138;
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Ekstrom LJ, Kajiura SM. Pelvic girdle shape predicts locomotion and phylogeny in batoids. J Morphol 2013; 275:100-10. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Revised: 06/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura J. Ekstrom
- Department of Biology; Wheaton College; Norton Massachusetts 02766
| | - Stephen M. Kajiura
- Department of Biological Sciences; Florida Atlantic University; Boca Raton Florida 33431
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