Sixteen years age limit for learner drivers in Sweden--an evaluation of safety effects

Effectiveness of road safety interventions: An evidence and gap map

Background

Road Traffic injuries (RTI) are among the top ten leading causes of death in the world resulting in 1.35 million deaths every year, about 93% of which occur in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Despite several global resolutions to reduce traffic injuries, they have continued to grow in many countries. Many high-income countries have successfully reduced RTI by using a public health approach and implementing evidence-based interventions. As many LMICs develop their highway infrastructure, adopting a similar scientific approach towards road safety is crucial. The evidence also needs to be evaluated to assess external validity because measures that have worked in high-income countries may not translate equally well to other contexts. An evidence gap map for RTI is the first step towards understanding what evidence is available, from where, and the key gaps in knowledge.

Objectives

The objective of this evidence gap map (EGM) is to identify existing evidence from all effectiveness studies and systematic reviews related to road safety interventions. In addition, the EGM identifies gaps in evidence where new primary studies and systematic reviews could add value. This will help direct future research and discussions based on systematic evidence towards the approaches and interventions which are most effective in the road safety sector. This could enable the generation of evidence for informing policy at global, regional or national levels.

Search Methods

The EGM includes systematic reviews and impact evaluations assessing the effect of interventions for RTI reported in academic databases, organization websites, and grey literature sources. The studies were searched up to December 2019.

Selection Criteria

The interventions were divided into five broad categories: (a) human factors (e.g., enforcement or road user education), (b) road design, infrastructure and traffic control, (c) legal and institutional framework, (d) post-crash pre-hospital care, and (e) vehicle factors (except car design for occupant protection) and protective devices. Included studies reported two primary outcomes: fatal crashes and non-fatal injury crashes; and four intermediate outcomes: change in use of seat belts, change in use of helmets, change in speed, and change in alcohol/drug use. Studies were excluded if they did not report injury or fatality as one of the outcomes.

Data Collection and Analysis

The EGM is presented in the form of a matrix with two primary dimensions: interventions (rows) and outcomes (columns). Additional dimensions are country income groups, region, quality level for systematic reviews, type of study design used (e.g., case-control), type of road user studied (e.g., pedestrian, cyclists), age groups, and road type. The EGM is available online where the matrix of interventions and outcomes can be filtered by one or more dimensions. The webpage includes a bibliography of the selected studies and titles and abstracts available for preview. Quality appraisal for systematic reviews was conducted using a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews, AMSTAR 2.

Main Results

The EGM identified 1859 studies of which 322 were systematic reviews, 7 were protocol studies and 1530 were impact evaluations. Some studies included more than one intervention, outcome, study method, or study region. The studies were distributed among intervention categories as: human factors (n = 771), road design, infrastructure and traffic control (n = 661), legal and institutional framework (n = 424), post-crash pre-hospital care (n = 118) and vehicle factors and protective devices (n = 111). Fatal crashes as outcomes were reported in 1414 records and non-fatal injury crashes in 1252 records. Among the four intermediate outcomes, speed was most commonly reported (n = 298) followed by alcohol (n = 206), use of seatbelts (n = 167), and use of helmets (n = 66). Ninety-six percent of the studies were reported from high-income countries (HIC), 4.5% from upper-middle-income countries, and only 1.4% from lower-middle and low-income countries. There were 25 systematic reviews of high quality, 4 of moderate quality, and 293 of low quality.

Authors' Conclusions

The EGM shows that the distribution of available road safety evidence is skewed across the world. A vast majority of the literature is from HICs. In contrast, only a small fraction of the literature reports on the many LMICs that are fast expanding their road infrastructure, experiencing rapid changes in traffic patterns, and witnessing growth in road injuries. This bias in literature explains why many interventions that are of high importance in the context of LMICs remain poorly studied. Besides, many interventions that have been tested only in HICs may not work equally effectively in LMICs. Another important finding was that a large majority of systematic reviews are of low quality. The scarcity of evidence on many important interventions and lack of good quality evidence-synthesis have significant implications for future road safety research and practice in LMICs. The EGM presented here will help identify priority areas for researchers, while directing practitioners and policy makers towards proven interventions.

Simulator-based driving test prescreening as a complement to driver testing - Toward safer and more risk-aware drivers

Young people represent a high-risk group of drivers and the prevalence of road traffic crashes among young drivers is high. Thus, to increase traffic safety, it is essential to ensure that new drivers are both sufficiently educated in and assessed for risk awareness. The aim of this study was to examine the possibility and potential benefit of using a driving simulator screening test as a complement to the existing on-road driving test. The main idea is to detect drivers who are not ready to proceed to the driving test. A comparative study was performed with participants who passed and failed a simulator test and an on-road driving test, respectively. A comparison between subjective and objective measures of performance and risk was also included. A driving simulator was placed at a traffic school and customers were recruited as participants. In total, 70 participants took part in the study and the simulated drive consisted of rural roads, urban traffic, and motorways with 16 different scenarios, constructed from the second level of the GDE matrix, to examine driving behavior, attention, and risk perception. The results show that with a screening test in a driving simulator, it is possible to detect drivers who consider themselves ready to take a driving test, but who have not yet reached the level of risk awareness required to be a safe driver. Test scenarios should be suited to detect deficiencies in risk awareness, test different levels of the GDE matrix and, to complement the driving test, be difficult to assess in an on-road driving test. Deficiencies in self-evaluation that are well-known among young drivers are again confirmed. To practice self-evaluation, the driving simulator is suggested as a pedagogical tool, linked to the GDE matrix.

Sociodemographic characteristics of youth licensing at age 17 in the context of supervised driving in Denmark

INTRODUCTION

Allowing young drivers to gain experience while being supervised by an experienced driver is a widely used measure to try to reduce crash risk. On 1 January 2017, the Danish licensing system was updated to allow licensing at age 17 with post-license supervised driving until solo driving at age 18.

METHOD

Based on data from the Danish Driving License register and Statistics Denmark, including the entire population, the purpose of this study is to determine if sociodemographic characteristics and a history of violations and crash involvement among youth predict licensing at age 17. A second purpose is to estimate the time period from licensing until the driver turns 18 and to explore changes in license demand in the context of Denmark's updated licensing system.

RESULTS

An increasing proportion choose to license at the age of 17, but the proportion below 19 with a driver's license is unchanged. On average, the license is obtained 5.3 months before turning 18. Living in rural areas, with both parents, and in a family with several cars and higher income increases the likelihood of licensing at age 17. Young people with a history of involvement in non-traffic-related accidents or violations are more likely to license at age 17.

CONCLUSION

Lowering the license age to allow supervised driving increases early licensing. The average time period from licensing until the driver turns 18 is less than six months. Sociodemographic characteristics predict early licensing.

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Minimum requirements for the time period from licensing until the driver turns 18 are needed to support a safety benefit. Follow-up studies mapping supervised driving, crash involvement, and possible changes in crash risk associated with the change in the Danish licensing system are needed to specify the requirements.

Young adults in motor vehicle collisions in Norway: user safety errors observed in majority of cases with severe or fatal injuries

PURPOSE

We performed a multidisciplinary investigation of young adults involved in motor vehicle collisions (MVCs) to elucidate injury mechanisms and the role of passive safety equipment such as seat belts and airbags.

METHODS

MVCs resulting in death or serious injuries to the driver or passengers aged 16-24 years in southeastern Norway during 2013-2016 were investigated upon informed consent. We assessed the crash scene, the motor vehicle (MV) interior and exterior, and analyzed data from medical records, forensic autopsies and reports from police and civil road authorities.

RESULTS

This study included 229 young adult occupants involved in 212 MVCs. The Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale (MAIS) score was ≥2 in 111 occupants, of which 22 were fatalities. In 59% (65/111) of the cases with MAIS score ≥2 injuries, safety errors and occupant protection inadequacies were considered to have contributed to the injury outcome. Common errors were seatbelt non-use and misuse, carrying insecure luggage, and the seat back being too reclined. MAIS score ≥2 head/neck injuries were observed in side impacts despite correct seatbelt use, related to older MVs lacking side airbag curtains. The independent risk factors for MAIS score ≥2 injuries included not using a seatbelt, driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, nighttime driving, side impacts, heavy collision partner, and MV deformation.

CONCLUSION

User safety errors (not using a seatbelt, seatbelt misuse, excessive seat-back reclining, and insecure cargo) and a lack of occupant protection in older MVs resulted in young adults sustaining severe or fatal injuries in MVCs.

Introducing accompanied driving in Denmark. Safety-related differences between youth licensing with immediate or delayed access to solo driving

In Denmark, the legal license age was lowered from 18 to 17, to allow practice with an experienced driver before solo driving from age 18. The change gives the candidate driver a choice between: a) licensing at age 17 followed by a phase of accompanied driving until solo driving at age 18 (L17), and b) licensing at age 18 (or older) giving immediate access to solo driving (L18). The purpose of this study is: First, to explore safety-related differences between youth choosing the L17 or the L18 option, with a particular focus on safety attitude and self-assessed driving skills. Second, to map patterns in the use of accompanied driving and its predictors as well as the interaction between the L17 driver and the accompanying person (ACP). A sample of 632 drivers (53% male) between 17 and 19 years of age completed a survey. Among the participants 61% licensed through L17 and 39% through L18. Our results identify different risk profiles between L17 and L18. A higher score on perceptual-motor skills, lower score on safety skills and lower support to speed limits predicted L17. Female L17 were more safety-oriented compared to male L17. L17 who had experienced a supportive atmosphere and engagement in complex traffic situations during the drive were more likely to indicate that accompanied driving had improved their driving skills. However, results also indicate that the amount of experience obtained by L17 may be insufficient to obtain a safety benefit. Measures to address speeding and other risk-taking behaviours among male candidate drivers are needed to ensure a safety benefit of the Danish accompanied driving scheme. In addition, requirements may be needed to increase the amount of accompanied driving. Finally, parent guidelines could support the creation of a positive atmosphere during the drive.

Assessing the Road Traffic Crashes among Novice Female Drivers in Saudi Arabia

Background: Recently (in 2018), females were legally allowed to drive and use automobiles in Saudi Arabia (SA) for the first time. This study investigated and analyzed the general fear of driving (GFDS), perceived self-confidence (PSCR), socio-economic variables, demographic distribution, and self-reported RTCs in novice female drivers from SA. Methods: The work was based on survey responses from 9608 participants from the first generation of female drivers from SA. Factor analysis was used to extract GFDS and PSCR scales. Results: Cronbach’s α values of 0.781 and 0.800 were observed for GFDS and PSCR, respectively. Logistic regression was employed to model road traffic collisions (RTCs) as a function of all significant variables. The results showed that of the 17.4% of geographically distributed respondents who reported RTCs, only 4% reported severe or minor injuries, and the rest (96.0%) of the accidents involved property damage. The GFDS and PSCR values showed a positive association with the RTCs of novice female drivers. Furthermore, age was not a significant influencing factor in the RTCs of novice female drivers. However, exposure factors were positively associated with the risk of RTC involvement. Conclusions: Female novice drivers who were single, divorced/widowed, employed, and had higher individual incomes were at higher risk of getting into RTCs. The female drivers who hired personal trainers, compared to those who did not, exhibited similar chances of getting involved in RTCs. An extra on-road in-traffic driving lesson is suggested to be included in the new-driver license training program for drivers with higher GFDS in SA.

Learner Driver Experience and Teenagers' Crash Risk During the First Year of Independent Driving

IMPORTANCE

One mechanism for teenagers' elevated crash risk during independent driving may be inadequate learner driving experience.

OBJECTIVE

To determine how learner driver experience was associated with crash risk during the first year of independent driving.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Youth aged 15.5 to 16.1 years at recruitment were eligible to participate. Participants' vehicles were instrumented with sensors, and driving was recorded during the learner period through 1 year of independent driving. Data were collected from January 2011 through August 2014 in southwestern Virginia.

EXPOSURES

The amount, consistency and variety of practice, driving errors, and kinematic risky driving (KRD) rates during the learner period were recorded. Surveys, including one on sensation-seeking personality traits, were assessed at baseline.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Cox proportional hazard regressions examined associations between individual characteristics and learner driving experience with driving time to first crash and all crashes in the first year of independent driving. So that hazard ratios (HRs) can be directly comparable, units of measurement were standardized to the interquartile range.

RESULTS

Of 298 individuals who responded to recruitment, 90 fulfilled the criteria and 82 completed the study (of whom 75 were white [91%] and 44 were girls [54%]). Teenage participants drove a mean (SD) of 1259.2 (939.7) miles over 89 days during the learner period. There were 49 property-damage crashes and/or police-reportable crashes during independent driving. Factors associated with driving time to first crash included higher sensation-seeking personality scale scores (HR, 1.67 [95% CI, 1.08-2.57] per 0.75-unit increase), learner driving KRD rates (HR, 1.27 [95% CI, 1.12-1.43] per 9.24-unit increase), and learner driving errors (HR, 0.44 [95% CI, 0.22-0.86] per increase of 6.48 errors). Similar results were obtained for all crashes in the first year, with the addition of consistency of learner driving practice (HR, 0.61 [95% CI, 0.38-0.99] per 0.23-unit increase).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Individual characteristics and learner driving experiences were associated with crash risk during independent driving. As expected, there was an association between sensation seeking and crashes. Elevated KRD rates during the learner period may reflect risky driving behavior among novices or tolerance to abrupt maneuvers by parents who supervise driving. Consistent practice throughout the learner period could reduce teenage crash risk, which is supported by learning theories indicating distributed practice is effective for developing expertise. Errors during practice may constitute learning events that reinforce safer driving. Physicians could encourage parents to provide opportunities for regular practice driving and monitor their teenager's KRD rates during the learner period using in-vehicle or smartphone-based technology.

Impacts of graduated driver licensing regulations

We evaluate the impact of the Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) system introduced in Victoria, Australia as they influence both injury and fatality rates. Since 1990, the Victorian GDL scheme has undergone several modifications including the introduction of new requirements and the stricter enforcement of existing regulations. Our evaluation of the GDL is based on monthly mortality and morbidity data for drivers 18-25 for the period January 2000 to June 2017. We estimate the immediate and long-term impacts of each policy change to the GDL system. Our results indicate that several initiatives in the GDL system have had impacts on both fatalities and injuries requiring hospitalisation when differentiated by gender. In a number of cases we observe that reactions to these measures are common to both genders. These include: the signalling of the proposed GDL changes in the media, the introduction of an extra probationary year for those under 21, the total alcohol ban for the entire probationary period, and limits on peer passengers for the first year. Stricter mobile phone restrictions appear to have had no impact on injuries for either males or females although they were associated with lower fatality rates for both. In addition, we found an indication that in the period prior to the introduction of the mandatory requirement of 120 h supervised driving, there was a rise in male driver injuries possibly caused by a rush of more inexperienced learners to obtain their probationary licence.

The impact of changes to the NSW graduated driver licensing system on subsequent crash and offense experience

INTRODUCTION

In mid-2007 the State of New South Wales (NSW) in Australia introduced modifications to the existing graduated driver licensing system, lengthening the mandatory number of supervised hours for learner drivers aged under 25 years from 50 to 120 and extending the minimum learner period from 6 to 12 months. Additional driving restrictions were also introduced for young drivers in the two provisional licensed periods, P1, P2. This paper aims to evaluate this change by comparing the crash and offense experiences of young learner drivers before and after it occurred.

METHOD

From driver licensing files supplied by the NSW transport authority two cohorts of persons obtaining their initial learner's permits in the year prior to the changes and in the subsequent year were constructed with demographic data, dates of transition to the driving phases, dates of crashes, and dates and types of traffic offenses. Both cohorts comprised around 100,000 individuals. Crash rates per 100 years of person-time under observation post P1 with their standard errors were calculated. Using a survival-analytic approach the proportion of crashes of all types were graphed in three month periods post P1. Sexes were treated separately as were initial learner ages of 16, 17, 18-21, and 22-24 years. The distribution of traffic offense types during P1 and P2 phases were also compared. With such large numbers formal statistical testing was avoided.

RESULTS

No meaningful differences in the crash or offense experiences of the two cohorts in either sex or at any age were observed. Delaying progress to unsupervised driving has road safety benefits.

CONCLUSIONS

At least in conditions similar to those in NSW, requiring more than 50 h of supervised driving seems to have few road safety benefits. Practical applications: Licensing authorities should be cautious in extending the mandated number of supervised driving hours beyond 50.

Experiences of facilitators or barriers in driving education from learner and novice drivers with ADHD or ASD and their driving instructors

BACKGROUND

Little is known about whether individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) experience any specific facilitators or barriers to driving education.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the facilitators or barriers to driving education experienced by individuals with ASD or ADHD who obtained a learner's permit, from the perspective of the learner drivers and their driving instructors.

METHODS

Data were collected from 33 participants with ASD or ADHD, and nine of their driving instructors.

RESULTS

Participants with ASD required twice as many driving lessons and more on-road tests than those with ADHD. Participants with ADHD repeated the written tests more than those with ASD. Driving license theory was more challenging for individuals with ADHD, whilst individuals with ASD found translating theory into practice and adjusting to "unfamiliar" driving situations to be the greatest challenges.

CONCLUSION

Obtaining a driving license was associated with stressful training experience.

Does early training improve driving skills of young novice French drivers?

The aim of this research was to study drivers' performances and divided attention depending on their initial training. The performances of young novice drivers who received early training, traditionally trained drivers and more experienced drivers were compared during a dual task consisting of a simulated car-following task and a number' parity judgment task. It was expected that, due to their limited driving experience, the young novice drivers would have more difficulty in adequately distributing their attention between the two tasks. Poorer performances by novice drivers than experienced drivers were therefore expected. The results indicate that traditionally trained drivers had more difficulties in speed regulation and maintaining their position in the lane than drivers with early training and experienced drivers. Performance impairment linked to driving inexperience was also found in the secondary task. The results were interpreted regarding the attentional resources involved in driving with a secondary task and supported the positive effects of French early training.

An Analysis of Young Driver Crash Types and the Associated Lifetime Care Cost in Victoria, Australia

OBJECTIVE

The elevated crash involvement rate of young drivers is well documented. Given the higher crash risk of young drivers and the need for innovative policy and programs, it remains important to fully understand the type of crashes young drivers are involved in, and knowledge of the lifetime care cost of crashes can support effective policy development. The aim of this article is to document the number and type of young driver crashes, as well as the associated lifetime care cost over a 9-year period (2005-2013) in Victoria, Australia.

METHODS

In Victoria, Australia, the Transport Accident Commission (TAC) has legislated responsibility for road safety and the care of persons injured in road crashes, irrespective of fault. TAC claims data for the period 2005-2013 were used to document the number and type of young driver crashes. Lifetime care costs (past and future payment liabilities) were calculated by Taylor Fry actuarial consultancy. License and population data were used to define the crash involvement rate of young drivers.

RESULTS

Over the 9-year period, 16,817 claims were lodged to the TAC by drivers 18-25 years of age following a crash. There were 646 fewer drivers aged 18-25 killed and injured in 2013, compared to 2005, representing an unadjusted change of -28.7% (-29.8% males; -28.4% females). The total lifetime care cost of young drivers killed and injured in Victoria for the period 2005-2013 was estimated to be AU$634 million (US$493 million). Differences between males and females, single- and multivehicle crashes, and fatalities and injuries were found to be statistically significant. Run-off-road crashes and crashes from opposing direction were overrepresented in the lifetime care costs for young driver claimants. Twenty-eight injured drivers were classified as high-severity claims. These 28 claimants require additional long-term care, which was estimated to be AU$219 million; of these 28, 24 were male (85.7%). The long-term care costs for these 28 drivers (0.16%) accounts for 34.5% of the total lifetime care cost of all 18- to 25-year-old injured drivers.

CONCLUSIONS

By using no-fault lifetime care costs that account for medical and like expenses, rehabilitation, and social reintegration costs, a more accurate understanding of the cost of young driver crashes can be determined. Application of these costs to specific crash types highlights new priorities and opportunities for developing programs to reduce young driver crashes.

Graduated Driver Licensing: An international review

Graduated driver licensing (GDL) aims to gradually increase the exposure of new drivers to more complex driving situations and typically consists of learner, provisional and open licence phases. The first phase, the learner licence, is designed to allow novice drivers to obtain practical driving experience in lower risk situations. The learner licence can delay licensure, encourage novice drivers to learn under supervision, mandate the number of hours of practice required to progress to the next phase and encourage parental involvement. The second phase, the provisional licence, establishes various driving restrictions and thereby reduces exposure to situations of higher risk, such as driving at night, with passengers or after drinking alcohol. Parental involvement with a GDL system appears essential in helping novices obtain sufficient practice and in enforcing compliance with restrictions once the new driver obtains a provisional licence. Given the significant number of young drivers involved in crashes within Oman, GDL is one countermeasure that may be beneficial in reducing crash risk and involvement for this group.

Driving errors of learner teens: frequency, nature and their association with practice

BACKGROUND

Despite demonstrating basic vehicle operations skills sufficient to pass a state licensing test, novice teen drivers demonstrate several deficits in tactical driving skills during the first several months of independent driving. Improving our knowledge of the types of errors made by teen permit holders early in the learning process would assist in the development of novel approaches to driver training and resources for parent supervision.

METHODS

The purpose of the current analysis was to describe driving performance errors made by teens during the permit period, and to determine if there were differences in the frequency and type of errors made by teens: (1) in comparison to licensed, safe, and experienced adult drivers; (2) by teen and parent-supervisor characteristics; and (3) by teen-reported quantity of practice driving. Data for this analysis were combined from two studies: (1) the control group of teens in a randomized clinical trial evaluating an intervention to improve parent-supervised practice driving (n=89 parent-teen dyads) and (2) a sample of 37 adult drivers (mean age 44.2 years), recruited and screened as an experienced and competent reference standard in a validation study of an on-road driving assessment for teens (tODA). Three measures of performance: drive termination (i.e., the assessment was discontinued for safety reasons), safety-relevant critical errors, and vehicle operation errors were evaluated at the approximate mid-point (12 weeks) and end (24 weeks) of the learner phase. Differences in driver performance were compared using the Wilcoxon rank sum test for continuous variables and Pearson's Chi-square test for categorical variables.

RESULTS

10.4% of teens had their early assessment terminated for safety reasons and 15.4% had their late assessment terminated, compared to no adults. These teens reported substantially fewer behind the wheel practice hours compared with teens that did not have their assessments terminated: tODAearly (9.0 vs. 20.0, p<0.001) and tODAlate (19.0 vs. 58.3, p<0.001). With respect to critical driving errors, 55% of teens committed a total of 85 critical errors (range of 1-5 errors per driver) on the early tODA; by comparison, only one adult committed a critical error (p<0.001). On the late tODA, 54% of teens committed 67 critical errors (range of 1-8 errors per driver) compared with only one adult (p<0.001). No differences in teen or parent gender, parent/teen relationship type or parent prior experience teaching a teen to drive were observed between teens who committed a critical error on either route and teens that committed no critical errors. A borderline association between median teen-reported practice quantity and critical error commission was observed for the late tODA. The overall median proportion of vehicle operation errors for teens was higher than that of adults on both assessments, though median error proportions were less than 10% for both teens and adults.

CONCLUSION

In comparison to a group of experienced adult drivers, a substantially higher proportion of learner teens committed safety-relevant critical driving errors at both time points of assessment. These findings, as well as the associations between practice quantity and the driving performance outcomes studied suggest that further research is needed to better understand how teens might effectively learn skills necessary for safe independent driving while they are still under supervised conditions.

Factors Contributing to Crashes among Young Drivers

Young drivers are the group of drivers most likely to crash. There are a number of factors that contribute to the high crash risk experienced by these drivers. While some of these factors are intrinsic to the young driver, such as their age, gender or driving skill, others relate to social factors and when and how often they drive. This article reviews the factors that affect the risk of young drivers crashing to enable a fuller understanding of why this risk is so high in order to assist in developing effective countermeasures.

Engagement with the TeenDrivingPlan and diversity of teens' supervised practice driving: lessons for internet-based learner driver interventions

OBJECTIVE

Inexperienced, less-skilled driving characterises many newly licensed drivers and contributes to high crash rates. A randomised trial of TeenDrivingPlan (TDP), a new learner driver phase internet-based intervention, demonstrated effectiveness in improving safety relevant, on-road driving behaviour, primarily through greater driving practice diversity. To inform future learner driver interventions, this analysis examined TDP use and its association with practice diversity.

DESIGN

Posthoc analysis of data from teen/parent dyads (n=107), enrolled early in learner phase and assigned to treatment arm in randomised trial.

METHODS

Inserted software beacons captured TDP use data. Electronic surveys completed by parents and teens assessed diversity of practice driving and TDP usability ratings at 24 weeks (end of study period).

RESULTS

Most families (84%) used TDP early in the learner period; however, the number of TDP sessions in the first week was three times higher among dyads who achieved greater practice diversity than those with less. By week five many families still engaged with TDP, but differences in TDP use could not be detected between families with high versus low practice diversity. Usability was not a major issue for this sample based on largely positive user ratings.

CONCLUSIONS

An engaging internet-based intervention, such as TDP, can support families in achieving high practice diversity. Future learner driver interventions should provide important information early in the learner period when engagement is greatest, encourage continued learning as part of logging practice drives, and incorporate monitoring software for further personalisation to meet family needs.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT01498575.

Parental perceptions of the learner driver log book system in two Australian states

OBJECTIVE

Though many jurisdictions internationally now require learner drivers to complete a specified number of hours of supervised driving practice before being able to drive unaccompanied, very few require learner drivers to complete a log book to record this practice and then present it to the licensing authority. Learner drivers in most Australian jurisdictions must complete a log book that records their practice, thereby confirming to the licensing authority that they have met the mandated hours of practice requirement. These log books facilitate the management and enforcement of minimum supervised hours of driving requirements.

METHOD

Parents of learner drivers in 2 Australian states, Queensland and New South Wales, completed an online survey assessing a range of factors, including their perceptions of the accuracy of their child's learner log book and the effectiveness of the log book system.

RESULTS

The study indicates that the large majority of parents believe that their child's learner log book is accurate. However, they generally report that the log book system is only moderately effective as a system to measure the number of hours of supervised practice a learner driver has completed.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest the presence of a paradox, with many parents possibly believing that others are not as diligent in the use of log books as they are or that the system is too open to misuse. Given that many parents report that their child's log book is accurate, this study has important implications for the development and ongoing monitoring of hours of practice requirements in graduated driver licensing systems.

The effect of the learner license Graduated Driver Licensing components on teen drivers' crashes

BACKGROUND

Most studies evaluating the effectiveness of Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) have focused on the overall system. Studies examining individual components have rarely accounted for the confounding of multiple, simultaneously implemented components. The purpose of this paper is to quantify the effects of a required learner license duration and required hours of supervised driving on teen driver fatal crashes.

METHODS

States that introduced a single GDL component independent of any other during the period 1990-2009 were identified. Monthly and quarterly fatal crash rates per 100,000 population of 16- and 17-year-old drivers were analyzed using single-state time series analysis, adjusting for adult crash rates and gasoline prices. Using the parameter estimates from each state's time series model, the pooled effect of each GDL component on 16- and 17-year-old drivers' fatal crashes was estimated using a random effects meta-analytic model to combine findings across states.

RESULTS

In three states, a six-month minimum learner license duration was associated with a significant decline in combined 16- and 17-year-old drivers' fatal crash rates. The pooled effect of the minimum learner license duration across all states in the sample was associated with a significant change in combined 16- and 17-year-old driver fatal crash rates of -.07 (95% Confidence Interval [CI] -.11, -.03). Following the introduction of 30 h of required supervised driving in one state, novice drivers' fatal crash rates increased 35%. The pooled effect across all states in the study sample of having a supervised driving hour requirement was not significantly different from zero (.04, 95% CI -.15, .22).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that a learner license duration of at least six-months may be necessary to achieve a significant decline in teen drivers' fatal crash rates. Evidence of the effect of required hours of supervised driving on teen drivers' fatal crash rates was mixed.

Graduated driver licensing program component calibrations and their association with fatal crash involvement

Graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs are specialized licensing systems for beginner drivers adopted in all U.S. states, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. GDL programs reduce novice drivers' exposure to high-risk driving situations while they gain driving experience. Several studies document the success of GDL programs overall in reducing young teen crash rates. However, little is known about which specific components of these programs (e.g., nighttime driving restrictions) and which calibrations of these components (e.g., 10 PM, 11 PM, 12 AM, or 1 AM), are associated with the largest crash reductions. The goal of this study was to identify the GDL component calibrations associated with the largest reductions in fatal crash involvements for 16-17-year-olds. Driver fatal crash involvements for all U.S. states from 1986 to 2007 were analyzed using Poisson regression models to estimate the association of various GDL component calibrations with 16- and 17-year-old driver fatal crash incidence, after adjusting for potential confounders. We found clear evidence that (a) a minimum learner permit holding period of 9-12 months and (b) a passenger restriction allowing only one teen passenger for 6 months or longer are the calibrations for the learner permit holding period and passenger restriction components associated with the largest reductions in 16-17-year-old driver fatal crash involvements. Additionally, the data suggest that (a) disallowing learner driving until age 16, (b) disallowing intermediate licensure until age 16½ to 17, and (c) a nighttime driving restriction starting at 10 PM or earlier are the calibrations for these components associated with the largest reductions in 16-year-old driver fatal crashes. There was no clear evidence to support particular calibrations for supervised driving hours or unrestricted license ages.

Supervised hours requirements in graduated driver licensing: Effectiveness and parental awareness

Most states require teens to complete a certain number of hours of supervised driving practice to obtain a license to drive unsupervised. Although widely implemented, the effect of requiring supervised practice is largely unknown. Using auto-regressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) interrupted time-series analysis, we found no change in fatal and injury crash involvement of 16-17-year-old drivers in Minnesota following enactment of a 30h supervised driving requirement. To supplement and provide insight into these findings, we conducted telephone interviews with parents of newly licensed teenage drivers in five states with varying amounts of required supervised driving, including Minnesota. Interviews revealed awareness of supervised driving requirements was limited. Only a third of parents (32%) overall could correctly identify the number of hours their state required. In Minnesota only 15% of parents could identify the amount of supervised driving their teen was required to complete. Awareness of the number of hours required was substantially higher (55%) in Maryland. Unlike the other states, Maryland requires submission of a driving log detailing the hours of supervised driving. The findings suggest states need to develop more effective mechanisms to ensure parents are aware of supervised hours requirements.

Graduated driver licensing and motor vehicle crashes involving teenage drivers: an exploratory age-stratified meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) has been implemented in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, USA and Israel. We conducted an exploratory summary of available data to estimate whether GDL effects varied with age.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE and other sources from 1991-2011. GDL evaluation studies with crashes resulting in injuries or deaths were eligible. They had to provide age-specific incidence rate ratios with CI or information for calculating these quantities. We included studies from individual states or provinces, but excluded national studies. We examined rates based on person-years, not license-years.

RESULTS

Of 1397 papers, 144 were screened by abstract and 47 were reviewed. Twelve studies from 11 US states and one Canadian province were selected for meta-analysis for age 16, eight were selected for age 17, and four for age 18. Adjusted rate ratios were pooled using random effects models. The pooled adjusted rate ratios for the association of GDL presence with crash rates was 0.78 (95% CI 0.72 to 0.84) for age 16 years, 0.94 (95% CI 0.93 to 0.96) for 17 and 1.00 (95% CI 0.95 to 1.04) for 18. The difference between these three rate ratios was statistically significant: p<0.001.

CONCLUSIONS

GDL policies were associated with a 22% reduction in crash rates among 16-year-old drivers, but only a 6% reduction for 17-year-old drivers. GDL showed no association with crashes among 18-year-old drivers. Because we had few studies to summarise, particularly for older adolescents, our findings should be considered exploratory.

Driver training in Algeria: areas for improvement

Purpose

This paper aims to present a picture of the training and assessment of drivers in Algeria, to identify the key weaknesses that characterize it, and to propose improvements.

Design/methodology/approach

The methodology adopted was to question driving instructors, driving examiners and drivers themselves on the operation of driving schools, training programmes and the teaching methods used. The research was conducted from January 2008 to December 2009. The sample consists of 960 individuals, distributed as follows: 240 driving schools, 672 drivers and 48 examiners. The work then involved direct observation of training and assessment to ascertain the actual conditions under which these operate.

Findings

Results shows the adverse conditions in which training takes place on one hand and field practices in contrast with the principles of safety and quality on the other. Quality training requires an improvement of those conditions and practices.

Originality/value

This study is a first qualitative approach to specific driver training in Algeria. The results should produce a statement on the situation and provide recommendations to improve training and evaluation.

Adult-supervised practice driving for adolescent learners: The current state and directions for interventions

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this study was to quantify and identify correlates to the amount of parent-supervised behind-the-wheel practice hours by novice teen drivers.

METHODS

A national survey of 945 parents of recently licensed teen drivers was conducted. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify factors related to the number of practice hours completed.

RESULTS

Sixty-one percent of parents reported practicing 50 or more hours with their teen. Two-parent involvement was associated with more practice hours, though use of a professional driving instructor was not. Parents of teens licensed in states mandating 50 or more hours of practice driving were more likely to report at least 50 practice hours than those in states mandating 20-40 hours or in states without mandates.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

The findings underscore the integral role of parents in the learning to drive process and provide further support for GDL requirements for practice hours.

The evaluation of traditional and early driver training with simulated accident scenarios

OBJECTIVE

We assessed the driving skills of novice traditionally trained, novice early-trained, and experienced drivers to evaluate whether supervised early training could improve young drivers' skills.

BACKGROUND

The overall representation of young male drivers in car crashes is a recurrent problem in developed countries.To prevent this overrepresentation, France institutes an early driver training program from the age of 16 with the supervision of an adult. However, evidence of the positive effects of this system is still lacking.

METHOD

Three groups of drivers (12 participants each) were confronted with five prototypical accident scenarios introduced in a simulated urban circuit. Drivers' response time, speed, and vehicle position in the lane were analyzed.

RESULTS

No difference was detected across groups regarding obstacle detection, as revealed by the analysis of response times. But in some unexpected scenarios, position control by traditionally trained drivers was more conservative than for more experienced drivers, and early-trained drivers were far more likely to respond with efficient evasive action.

CONCLUSION

The exposure gained by an early training program could thus increase the development of visuomotor coordination and involve better skills in challenging situations.

APPLICATION

The supplementary driving experience gained with the supervision of an adult during early training could promote the skills necessary to deal with risky situations. Driving simulators could be used to confront young drivers with a broad range of hazardous scenarios not commonly encountered in natural driving.

The impact of changes to the graduated driver licensing program in Queensland, Australia on the experiences of Learner drivers

PURPOSE

Graduated driver licensing (GDL) has been introduced in numerous jurisdictions in Australia and internationally in an attempt to ameliorate the significantly greater risk of death and injury for young novice drivers arising from road crashes. The GDL program in Queensland, Australia, was extensively modified in July 2007. This paper reports the driving and licensing experiences of Learner drivers progressing through the current-GDL program, and compares them to the experiences of Learners who progressed through the former-GDL program.

METHOD

Young drivers (n=1032, 609 females, 423 males) aged 17-19 years (M=17.43, SD=0.67) were recruited as they progressed from a Learner to a Provisional driver's licence. They completed a survey exploring their sociodemographic characteristics, driving and licensing experiences as a Learner. Key measures for a subsample (n=183) of the current-GDL drivers were compared with the former-GDL drivers (n=149) via t-tests and chi-square analyses.

RESULTS

As expected, Learner drivers progressing through the current-GDL program gained significantly more driving practice than those in the former program, which was more likely to be provided by mothers than in the past. Female Learners in the current-GDL program reported less difficulty obtaining supervision than those in the former program. The number of attempts needed to pass the practical driving assessment did not change, nor did the amount of professional supervision. The current-GDL Learners held their licence for a significantly longer duration than those in the former program, with the majority reporting that their Logbook entries were accurate on the whole. Compared to those in the former program, a significantly smaller proportion of male current-GDL Learners reported being detected for a driving offence whilst the females reported significantly lower crash involvement. Most current-GDL drivers reported undertaking their supervised practice at the end of the Learner period.

CONCLUSIONS

The enhancements to the GDL program in Queensland appear to have achieved many of their intended results. The current-GDL Learners participating in the study reported obtaining a significantly greater amount of supervised driving experience compared to former-GDL Learners. Encouragingly, the current-GDL Learners did not report any greater difficulty in obtaining supervised driving practice, and there was a decline in the proportion of current-GDL Learners engaging in unsupervised driving. In addition, the majority of Learners do not appear to be attempting to subvert logbook recording requirements, as evidenced by high rates of self-reported logbook accuracy. The results have implications for the development and the evaluation of GDL programs in Australia and around the world.

Long-term effect of the North Carolina graduated driver licensing system on licensed driver crash incidence: a 5-year survival analysis

Several studies document the success of graduated driver licensing (GDL) systems in reducing young teen crash rates, but it is not yet clear whether any portion of the crash reduction is achieved by producing more capable drivers. The purpose of this study was to determine whether young teen drivers licensed under the North Carolina GDL system remain crash-free longer than those licensed prior to GDL, independent of the crude reductions in exposure (i.e., decreasing and delaying licensure) that may be responsible for most documented effects of GDL. Survival analysis was used to compare retrospective cohorts of 16-17 year olds before (n=105,569) and after (n=327,054) the North Carolina GDL system was implemented. The crash incidence of GDL-licensed 16-17 year olds (combined) was 10% lower than that for pre-GDL teens for at least 5 years after being licensed to drive independently (hazard ratio [HR]=0.90; 95% confidence interval [CI]=0.89, 0.91). However, more refined analysis revealed the reductions to only be among females (7%; HR=0.93; CI=0.91, 0.94) and males (15%; HR=0.85, CI=0.84, 0.87) licensed at age 16 and not among females (0%; HR=1.00; CI=0.95, 1.06) and males (0%; HR=1.00; CI=0.92, 1.09) licensed at age 17. Sixteen-year-old drivers licensed under the North Carolina GDL system experienced lower first-crash incidence during the first 5 years of unsupervised driving than did those licensed under the previous system. The benefits are greater for males, who tend to have higher crash rates. The findings contradict conventional wisdom that the entire benefit of GDL results merely from decreasing or delaying licensure among young drivers.

Required hours of practice for learner drivers: a comparison between two Australian jurisdictions

PROBLEM

This study considers whether requiring learner drivers to complete a set number of hours while on a learner license affects the amount of hours of supervised practice that they undertake. It compares the amount of practice that learners in Queensland and New South Wales report undertaking. At the time the study was conducted, learner drivers in New South Wales were required to complete 50 hours of supervised practice while those from Queensland were not.

METHOD

Participants were approached outside driver licensing centers after they had just completed their practical driving test to obtain their provisional (intermediate) license. Those agreeing to participate were interviewed over the phone later and asked a range of questions to obtain information including socio-demographic details and amount of supervised practice completed.

RESULTS

There was a significant difference in the amount of practice that learners reported undertaking. Participants from New South Wales reported completing a significantly greater amount of practice (M=73.3 hours, sd=29.12 hours) on their learner license than those from Queensland (M=64.1 hours, sd=51.05 hours). However, the distribution of hours of practice among the Queensland participants was bimodal in nature. Participants from Queensland reported either completing much less or much more practice than the New South Wales average.

SUMMARY

While it appears that the requirement that learner drivers complete a set number of hours may increase the average amount of hours of practice obtained, it may also serve to discourage drivers from obtaining additional practice, over and above the required hours.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

The results of this study suggest that the implications of requiring learner drivers to complete a set number of hours of supervised practice are complex. In some cases, policy makers may inadvertently limit the amount of hours learners obtain to the mandated amount rather than encouraging them to obtain as much practice as possible.

Effects of graduated driver licensing on licensure and traffic injury rates in Upstate New York

OBJECTIVE

In 2003, New York State implemented an enhanced graduated driving licensing (GDL) program that requires extended supervised driving and a passenger restriction. This study examines its safety benefit in 55 Upstate New York counties.

METHODS

We analyzed fatal/incapacitating traffic injury data among 16-, 17- and 21-24-year olds for the years 2001 and 2005 using the negative binomial model. To adjust for trends in the traffic injury rate, the relative rate ratio (rRR) of 16- and 17-year olds relative to 21-24-year olds was estimated.

RESULTS

GDL implementation was associated with a 31% reduction in the driver injury rate (rRR 0.69, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.49-0.96), but not with any statistically significant change in the passenger injury rate (rRR 1.19, 95% CI 0.77-1.84), or pedestrian and bicyclist injury rate (rRR 1.53, 95% CI 0.89-2.62) among 16-year olds. Sixteen-year olds experienced a 21% decline in licensure rates between 2001 and 2005. GDL implementation had no appreciable impact on driver injury and licensure rates for 17- and 21-24-year olds.

CONCLUSIONS

GDL implementation is associated with a significant reduction in licensure and driver injury rate among 16-year olds. GDL implementation does not have a statistically significant impact on passenger, pedestrian, and bicyclist injury rates for 16-year olds.

Parenting and the young driver problem

Crash rates increase sharply at the age at which teenagers begin to drive and remain elevated relative to adult levels until drivers are well into their twenties. Parents have important roles to play in managing the risk for teenage drivers before and after licensure. Parents can be involved in their teenagers' driving, allowing them to test for permit and licensure, supervising practice driving, providing access to a vehicle, and setting and enforcing limits on driving privileges after licensure. However, the management practices of many parents may not be sufficient to provide safety effects. The literature indicates that the two most important decisions parents can make to reduce teenagers' driving risk are to delay licensure and impose limits on high-risk driving conditions (such as driving at night and with teenage passengers) during the first year of licensure. Two intervention programs have been shown to increase parental limit setting as a means of reducing risky driving behaviors and improving driving performance among novice teenage drivers. This article describes the contexts of and opportunities for parental involvement in teenage driving and the effectiveness of interventions to increase and improve parental management of young drivers.

Self-reported motorcycle riding behaviour among school children in India

Studies on traffic accidents among underage users of motorcycles are seldom seen in literature. This study was done in Yamunanagar, India where boys as young as 8 years ride motorcycles. It attempts to find out the behavioural and non-behavioural factors leading to motorcycle use and the predisposition to accidents among male school children aged between 10 and 16 years. A questionnaire was used to evaluate those factors among 1760 subjects in 38 schools. Fifteen percent of subjects had had an accident while riding motorcycle. Most of the behavioural and all the non-behavioural factors have a statistically significant influence on accident proneness. Aggressive behaviour and previous encounter with the police are the two strong predictors of accidents (p<0.001). Children as riders are exposed to higher risks of accident and longer life with disability. It also explains how these children behaviourally take up adult roles and seek adult risk taking attitudes. The implications of child motorcycle riders upon children themselves and on the society are discussed for a greater discourse on road safety motorcycle riding policy and to highlight the behavioural and non-behavioural factors that are associated with traffic accidents.

Practicing in relation to the outcome of the driving test

In Sweden, a written and a driving test must be passed for licensure, and these two examinations are the only means of verifying that learner drivers have acquired the competencies stipulated in the national curriculum. The present study investigated 18-24-year olds regarding the effects of personal background and mode of driver education instruction on the outcome of the driving test. This was done by analysing the following for individual subjects: data on practicing obtained using a questionnaire, and test results of license tests. The results suggest that among the candidates under study, there are equal opportunities in the context of obtaining a driver's license independent of a person's background. The rate of passing was higher for those who started behind-the-wheel training at 16 and applied to take the driving test via a driving school, than for those who started the training at an older age and applied to take the test in person. It was also found that the probability of passing the test was greater if there is successful cooperation between learner and driving school instructor, and if a large proportion of the training been devoted to the task speed adaptation.

Traffic safety in the U.S.: re-examining major opportunities

INTRODUCTION

This article examines five major road-safety risk factors: exceeding posted speed limits, not using safety belts, driving while intoxicated, nighttime driving, and young drivers.

METHOD

The importance of each of these factors is documented, known effective countermeasures (both policy and technology based) are discussed, and impediments to the implementation of these countermeasures in the United States are examined.

RESULTS

Based on current understanding of the five major risk factors, and of the available countermeasures, there appear to be a variety of opportunities to make substantial gains in road safety using existing knowledge. The limited implementation of a variety of known countermeasures therefore appears to be inconsistent with high-level, strategic goals to improve road safety. Consequently, a recommendation is made to comprehensively re-examine the balance between the countermeasures discussed in this article and economic, mobility, and privacy concerns. IMPACT ON PUBLIC SAFETY: Such a re-examination is likely to result in broad support for these countermeasures, with a consequent major improvement in road safety.

Trends in young driver risk and countermeasures in European countries

This paper reviews European trends regarding young drivers' accident risk and the effects of countermeasures. Young driver risk differs between countries, and has improved in the last decade, probably as a result of general improvements in road safety levels. Young male drivers' relative risk is rising, indicating that current policies are less effective for males than for females. Further research is needed to understand the causes of this development. In Europe, most countries are moving toward multiphase licensing systems, including elements like accompanied driving, protective measures, and probation periods. European evaluation studies show mixed results regarding these elements, pointing to a need for more research into the effective components.

Practicing for and performance on drivers license tests in relation to gender differences in crash involvement among novice drivers

PROBLEM

Young male novice drivers are overrepresented in injury motor-vehicle crashes compared to females in the same category. This difference in crash involvement is often assumed to include factors such as overestimation, risk acceptance, and sensation seeking, but it can also be related to acquisition of knowledge, skills, insight, and driving experience. Therefore, this study explored possible gender differences among 18-24-year-olds in Sweden regarding practicing as learners, outcome of the driver's tests, and crash involvement during the first year after licensure.

METHOD

Data for 2005 from different sources (e.g., questionnaires, license test, and crash statistics) were examined. It was not possible to follow individual subjects through all stages or in all analyses. Nevertheless, the study design did enable scrutinization and discussion of gender differences between younger inexperienced drivers with respect to education and training, license test results, and initial period of licensure.

RESULTS

Males and females assimilated tuition in different ways. Females studied more theory, pursued training in a more structured manner, practiced more elements of driving in several different environments, and participated more extensively in driving school instruction. National statistics showed that females did better on the written test but not on the driving test. Males were involved in 1.9 more injury crashes per 1,000 drivers than females during their first year of licensed driving. The proportional distribution of crash types was the same for both sexes during the first period as novice drivers, but the circumstances surrounding the accidents varied (e.g., males were involved in more night crashes).

IMPACT ON TRAFFIC SAFETY

More structured training while learning appears to be one of the reasons why females initially do better than males as novice drivers. Therefore, in the future, driver education should focus not only on matters such as the amount of time spent on training and preconditioning, but also on the importance of the organization and content of the learning process.

Contribution of the components of graduated licensing to crash reductions

PROBLEM

It has been established that graduated licensing systems lead to crash reductions among beginning drivers. What is the contribution of the various components of graduated licensing to these reductions, and how can their effectiveness be increased?

METHOD

Literature review and synthesis.

RESULTS

Extended learner periods, nighttime restrictions, and passenger restrictions have contributed to crash reductions. Presently there is insufficient evidence concerning the contribution of seat belt or cell phone provisions, or contingent advancement penalties.

DISCUSSION

There is more to learn about graduated licensing and its component features. However, there are ways to increase the contribution of all the components through stronger laws and greater compliance. With the right kind of community commitment and focus, substantial further reductions in young driver crashes are achievable.

IMPACT ON INDUSTRY

The results can guide states in establishing graduated licensing systems that maximize crash reductions.

Parent involvement in novice teen driving: rationale, evidence of effects, and potential for enhancing graduated driver licensing effectiveness

Motor-vehicle crash rates are highly elevated immediately after licensure and then decline gradually over a period of years. Young age, risk taking, and inexperience contribute to the problem, but inexperience is particularly important early on. Driving is like other complex, skilled behaviors in which subtle improvements in perception and judgment develop gradually over a period of years. After all, safe driving is more a matter of attention and perception than physical management of the vehicle. Inexperience is particularly linked to driving performance and safety outcomes under certain driving conditions, with driving at night and with teen passengers as the most important cases. Surprisingly, driving outcomes do not appear to be affected by the pre-license training or supervised practice driving. Given the limits of training, safety effects can best be achieved by countermeasures that delay licensure or limit novice teen driving under high risk driving conditions while novices gain experience and develop safety competence. The two complementary approaches of Graduated Driver Licensing policies and parent management have been shown to provide safety effects by limiting the driving conditions of novice teenagers.

GDL then and now

The first comprehensive Graduated License (GDL) law was implemented in Florida in 1996. Now, most states have implemented one or more GDL provision including: extending the time for which a learners permit must be held prior to licensure; passenger restriction; and night driving restriction. Evidence to support each of these provisions existed prior to 1996 and has been largely confirmed with the evaluation of each new state to implement GDL. Nationally, fatal crash involvements of 16 year-old drivers have decreased 23% (1993-1995 vs. 2003-2005). Greater reductions have been seen for crash involvements at night and with passengers. The single most effective GDL provision appears to be the extension of the learners period when this extension has the effect of delaying the time at which unsupervised driving is permitted.

Do recommended driving limits affect teen-reported traffic violations and crashes during the first 12 months of independent driving?

OBJECTIVES

Motor vehicle crashes are highly elevated among newly licensed teenage drivers. Limits on high-risk driving conditions by driver licensing policies and parents can protect novice teens from negative driving outcomes, while they experience and driving proficiency. The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effects of strict parent-imposed driving limits on driving outcomes during the first year of licensure.

METHODS

A sample of 3,743 Connecticut teens was recruited and randomized to the Checkpoints Program or comparison condition. Assessments conducted at baseline, licensure, 3-, 6-, and 12-months postlicensure included parent-imposed driving limits, traffic violations, and crashes. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to assess the effects of strict parent limits on traffic violations and crashes during the first year of licensure.

RESULTS

Thirty percent of teens reported at least one traffic violation and 40% reported at least one crash. More strict parent-imposed limits at licensure, 3-, 6-, and 12-months postlicensure, were associated with fewer violations and crashes in multivariate analyses. Notably, adherence to recommended night curfew was consistently associated with fewer violations and crashes.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that strict parent-imposed limits may protect novice teen drivers from negative driving outcomes.

The role of driver education in the licensing process in Quebec

PROBLEM

In many jurisdictions, driver education (DE) graduates, compared to non-graduates, are granted a time-discount that allows them to drive unsupervised several months earlier, despite little evidence of a safety benefit and consistent evidence of increased crash risk. Confounding factors may be threatening the validity of DE evaluations. A theoretical framework called the "licensing process" (LP) is proposed to identify and explore potential confounding factors in DE evaluations.

METHOD

Prospective study data on a cohort of 1804 novice drivers 16 to 19 years of age of both sexes are analyzed in relation to the LP framework. These data derive from two sources that were linked together: an extensive questionnaire on learning methods, risk-taking, and lifestyles, and government records on exam performance, violations, and crashes.

RESULTS

Violation and crash records are not associated with DE attendance. DE attendance is associated with younger ages, greater financial support from family, and fewer hours of supervised driving practice with a learner's permit. For both sexes, more hours of supervised driving practice with a learner's permit is associated with increased crash risk. Most participants, particularly males under 19 years of age, attended DE partly or entirely to save time or money; these motivations are associated with higher violation and crash rates.

DISCUSSION

DE evaluations need to identify and control for potential confounding factors. Research is needed to understand the associations between increased crash risk and potential confounding factors like motivation to attend DE and hours of supervised driving practice.

Parent involvement in novice teen driving: a review of the literature

Motor vehicle crashes remain elevated among novice teen drivers for at least several years after licensure. Licensing policies and driver education are the two primary countermeasures employed to decrease young driver crash risks. Graduated driver licensing policies have proved to be effective in reducing crash rates where evaluated. Driver education is an essential part of teaching teens the rules of the road and operating a vehicle, but requires few hours of professional driver training, relying mainly on parents to provide most of the supervised practice driving teens obtain before independent driving licensure. The few studies that have been conducted to increase parent supervised practice driving have not shown positive results. Moreover, it is unclear that increases in practice would improve independent driving safety. Recent research has shown that parent management of the early independent driving experience of novice teens improves safety outcomes, and other research has shown that it is possible to increase parent management practices. This paper provides a review of the literature on parent involvement in supervised practice and independent driving, and efforts to increase parental management.

Hazard perception and driving experience among novice drivers

The crash risk of novice drivers decreases rapidly during the first few months of post-licensing driving, indicating that some important safety-relevant traffic skills are learnt during this period. The present study tested the hypothesis that the risk decrease is related to improved hazard perception skills. A video-based hazard perception/reaction test, measuring reaction times to 31 traffic scenes, was administered to three groups of drivers, having held a licence for 1, 5, and 9 months, respectively, and to a group of drivers who had held their licences for several years. Average reaction times tended to decrease with experience, but the decrease was not significant. There were some significant differences in the expected direction for individual test items, indicating a possible effect of experience. One half of the situations were presented together with a secondary task, in order to investigate effects of increased mental load on hazard perception. Male novice drivers had relatively longer reaction times with the secondary task, compared to both female novice drivers and male experienced drivers. It is concluded that hazard perception as tested here is probably only a minor factor in explaining the initial risk decrease among novice drivers.

The social patterning of injury repetitions among young car drivers in Sweden

A national register-based cohort study was conducted to explore whether the social patterning of car drivers suffering injury repetitions differs from that of once-injured drivers in a cohort of young persons in Sweden (aged 18-26). Injury repeaters were defined as individuals sustaining injuries as a car driver on more than one occasion over an 8-year period. Only subjects obtaining a driver's licence before the age of 27 were included in the study. The social variables considered were, in turn, gender, socioeconomic position of origin, and own educational attainment. Attention was also paid to age at licensing. Two types of comparisons were made, using odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals. First, the odds of injury repeaters were computed using the once-injured car drivers as a reference group. Second, odds were compiled for once, twice, and three or more times injured people, using the non-injured at all as a comparison group. The results show that, by and large, the injury-risk distribution of car drivers with injury repetition does not differ from that of one-injury drivers with regard to gender, education, or socioeconomic group. However, drivers from self-employed households show greater odds of injury repetition (OR 1.65, CI 1.02-2.67) than of one injury compared with drivers from the families of non-manual employees. Since the number of injury repeaters is low and their socioeconomic distribution is very similar to that of the once injured, there is no need to regard them as a group at excess risk or different from the one-time injured. Reducing risk levels and risk differentials for the one time injured should therefore receive priority with regard to traffic-injury prevention.

Socioeconomic aspects of the circumstances and consequences of car crashes among young adults

The study examines whether there are socioeconomic differences between young adult car drivers involved in road-traffic crashes with regard to crash-injury severity and crash circumstances. Differences in social patterning based on socioeconomic position (SEP) of origin and of destination, and also the effect of gender, are considered. Subjects born in 1970-1972 were extracted from the Swedish Population and Housing Census of 1985 (n = 329,716). Individual records from the 1985 census were linked to road-traffic data for the period 1988-2000 on the basis of a search for each subject's first police-registered road-traffic crash as a car driver (n = 12,502). Information on household socioeconomic group was taken from the census of 1985, and data on completed education at age 28-30 were gathered from Sweden's Register of Education. Two categories of crash severity were analysed (minor/no injury and severe/fatal injury), and also five crash circumstances (based on a classification of five crash descriptors). Both crash severity and crash circumstances are unequally distributed across social groups among young adult drivers. Social patterning is more pronounced for severe injuries/fatalities, and is consistently so across crash circumstances depending on SEP of destination, particularly for males. Socioeconomic differences are more pronounced for crash circumstances characterised as front-on and overtaking collisions and for single-vehicle crashes (43% of total crashes). In conclusion,the excess risk of young drivers from lower socioeconomic groups is consistent over crash severity but more pronounced as severity increases and for certain crash circumstances.

Investigation of the driving experience of a sample of Victorian learner drivers

This paper presents the results of an investigation of the driving experience of a small sample of learner drivers in Victoria, Australia. Participants (n = 110) kept a continuous logbook of their driving experience over the 2 years of the learner-driver period, including information about the distance and time of each driving trip, their level of confidence, and monthly data concerning the number of crashes, near misses, and unpleasant emotional interactions with their supervising driver. The analysis of these data suggests that learner drivers accrue relatively little driving experience and that they tend to obtain this experience in daytime, fair-weather driving. The implications of these results are discussed.

The "genetics" of driving behavior: parents' driving style predicts their children's driving style

It can be hypothesized that children inherit their parents' driving habits both through genetic disposition and model learning. A few studies have shown indeed that parents' and their children's traffic convictions and accidents correlate which, however, may be due to life style and other exposure factors. This study aimed at investigating the relationships between parents' and their children's self-reported driving behavior. The subjects were 174 parent-child pairs who independently completed a questionnaire. Driving behavior-driving style-was evaluated by means of Manchester driver behavior questionnaire (DBQ), while data about driving exposure, life style, accidents, and traffic tickets were also collected. A series of regression models indicated that parents' self-reported driving behavior explains their children's respective self-reported behavior, even when exposure and demographic and life-style factors are controlled.