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Amraei R, Xia C, Olejnik J, White MR, Napoleon MA, Lotfollahzadeh S, Hauser BM, Schmidt AG, Chitalia V, Mühlberger E, Costello CE, Rahimi N. Extracellular vimentin is an attachment factor that facilitates SARS-CoV-2 entry into human endothelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:2113874119. [PMID: 35078919 PMCID: PMC8833221 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2113874119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 entry into host cells is a crucial step for virus tropism, transmission, and pathogenesis. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) has been identified as the primary entry receptor for SARS-CoV-2; however, the possible involvement of other cellular components in the viral entry has not yet been fully elucidated. Here we describe the identification of vimentin (VIM), an intermediate filament protein widely expressed in cells of mesenchymal origin, as an important attachment factor for SARS-CoV-2 on human endothelial cells. Using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, we identified VIM as a protein that binds to the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein. We showed that the S-protein receptor binding domain (RBD) is sufficient for S-protein interaction with VIM. Further analysis revealed that extracellular VIM binds to SARS-CoV-2 S-protein and facilitates SARS-CoV-2 infection, as determined by entry assays performed with pseudotyped viruses expressing S and with infectious SARS-CoV-2. Coexpression of VIM with ACE2 increased SARS-CoV-2 entry in HEK-293 cells, and shRNA-mediated knockdown of VIM significantly reduced SARS-CoV-2 infection of human endothelial cells. Moreover, incubation of A549 cells expressing ACE2 with purified VIM increased pseudotyped SARS-CoV-2-S entry. CR3022 antibody, which recognizes a distinct epitope on SARS-CoV-2-S-RBD without interfering with the binding of the spike with ACE2, inhibited the binding of VIM with CoV-2 S-RBD, and neutralized viral entry in human endothelial cells, suggesting a key role for VIM in SARS-CoV-2 infection of endothelial cells. This work provides insight into the pathogenesis of COVID-19 linked to the vascular system, with implications for the development of therapeutics and vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Razie Amraei
- Department of Pathology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Chaoshuang Xia
- Center for Biomedical Mass Spectrometry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Judith Olejnik
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
- National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Mitchell R White
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
- National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Marc A Napoleon
- Renal Section, Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Saran Lotfollahzadeh
- Renal Section, Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Blake M Hauser
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Aaron G Schmidt
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH), Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02139
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Vipul Chitalia
- Renal Section, Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118
- Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA 02118
- Institute of Medical Engineering and Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | - Elke Mühlberger
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
- National Emerging Infectious Diseases Laboratories, Boston University, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Catherine E Costello
- Center for Biomedical Mass Spectrometry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118;
| | - Nader Rahimi
- Department of Pathology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118;
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Itabashi K, Miyazawa T. Mother-to-Child Transmission of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1: Mechanisms and Nutritional Strategies for Prevention. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13164100. [PMID: 34439253 PMCID: PMC8394315 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13164100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately 95% of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of human T-cell leukemia virus type-1 (HTLV-1) is derived from prolonged breastfeeding, which is a major cause of adult T-cell leukemia (ATL). Exclusive formula feeding (ExFF) is therefore generally used to prevent MTCT. A recent cohort study revealed that 55% of pregnant carriers chose short-term breastfeeding for ≤3 months in Japan. Our meta-analysis showed that there was no significant increase in the risk of MTCT when breastfeeding was carried out for ≤3 months compared with ExFF (pooled relative risk (RR), 0.72; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.30-1.77), but there was an almost threefold increase in risk when breastfeeding was carried out for up to 6 months (pooled RR, 2.91; 95% CI, 1.69-5.03). Thus, short-term breastfeeding for ≤3 months may be useful in preventing MTCT. Breastmilk is the best nutritional source for infants, and any approach to minimizing MTCT by avoiding or limiting breastfeeding must be balanced against the impact on the child's health and mother-child bonding. To minimize the need for nutritional interventions, it is necessary to identify factors that predispose children born to carrier mothers to MTCT and thereby predict MTCT development with a high degree of accuracy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuo Itabashi
- Aiseikai Memorial Ibaraki Welfare Medical Center, 1872-1 Motoyoshida-cho, Mito-City 310-0836, Japan
- Department of Pediatrics, Showa University School of Medicine, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8666, Japan;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +81-29-353-7171; Fax: +81-29-353-6112
| | - Tokuo Miyazawa
- Department of Pediatrics, Showa University School of Medicine, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 142-8666, Japan;
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Li Z, Paulin D, Lacolley P, Coletti D, Agbulut O. Vimentin as a target for the treatment of COVID-19. BMJ Open Respir Res 2020; 7:7/1/e000623. [PMID: 32913008 PMCID: PMC7482103 DOI: 10.1136/bmjresp-2020-000623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We and others propose vimentin as a possible cellular target for the treatment of COVID-19. This innovative idea is so recent that it requires further attention and debate. The significant role played by vimentin in virus-induced infection however is well established: (1) vimentin has been reported as a co-receptor and/or attachment site for SARS-CoV; (2) vimentin is involved in viral replication in cells; (3) vimentin plays a fundamental role in both the viral infection and the consequent explosive immune-inflammatory response and (4) a lower vimentin expression is associated with the inhibition of epithelial to mesenchymal transition and fibrosis. Moreover, the absence of vimentin in mice makes them resistant to lung injury. Since vimentin has a twofold role in the disease, not only being involved in the viral infection but also in the associated life-threatening lung inflammation, the use of vimentin-targeted drugs may offer a synergistic advantage as compared with other treatments not targeting vimentin. Consequently, we speculate here that drugs which decrease the expression of vimentin can be used for the treatment of patients with COVID-19 and advise that several Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs be immediately tested in clinical trials against SARS-CoV-2, thus broadening therapeutic options for this type of viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenlin Li
- Biological Adaptation and Ageing, CNRS UMR 8256, Inserm U1164, Sorbonne Université, Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine, Paris, France
| | - Denise Paulin
- Biological Adaptation and Ageing, CNRS UMR 8256, Inserm U1164, Sorbonne Université, Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine, Paris, France
| | - Patrick Lacolley
- Inserm, UMR_S 1116, DCAC, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, Lorraine, France
| | - Dario Coletti
- Biological Adaptation and Ageing, CNRS UMR 8256, Inserm U1164, Sorbonne Université, Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine, Paris, France.,Department of Anatomy, Histology, Forensic Medicine & Orthopedics, Histology & Medical Embryology Section, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Lazio, Italy
| | - Onnik Agbulut
- Biological Adaptation and Ageing, CNRS UMR 8256, Inserm U1164, Sorbonne Université, Institut de Biologie Paris-Seine, Paris, France
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Medina F, Quintremil S, Alberti C, Godoy F, Pando ME, Bustamante A, Barriga A, Cartier L, Puente J, Tanaka Y, Valenzuela MA, Ramírez E. Tax secretion from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and Tax detection in plasma of patients with human T-lymphotropic virus-type 1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis and asymptomatic carriers. J Med Virol 2015; 88:521-31. [PMID: 26241614 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Human T-lymphotropic virus-type 1 (HTLV-1) is the etiologic agent of the neurologic disease HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). Tax viral protein plays a critical role in viral pathogenesis. Previous studies suggested that extracellular Tax might involve cytokine-like extracellular effects. We evaluated Tax secretion in 18 h-ex vivo peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) cultures from 15 HAM/TSP patients and 15 asymptomatic carriers. Futhermore, Tax plasma level was evaluated from other 12 HAM/TSP patients and 10 asymptomatic carriers. Proviral load and mRNA encoding Tax were quantified by PCR and real-time RT-PCR, respectively. Intracellular Tax in CD4(+)CD25(+) cells occurred in 100% and 86.7% of HAM/TSP patients and asymptomatic carriers, respectively. Percentage of CD4(+)CD25(+) Tax+, proviral load and mRNA encoding Tax were significantly higher in HAM/TSP patients. Western blot analyses showed higher secretion levels of ubiquitinated Tax in HAM/TSP patients than in asymptomatic carriers. In HTLV-1-infected subjects, Western blot of plasma Tax showed higher levels in HAM/TSP patients than in asymptomatic carriers, whereas no Tax was found in non-infected subjects. Immunoprecipitated plasma Tax resolved on SDS-PAGE gave two major bands of 57 and 48 kDa allowing identification of Tax and Ubiquitin peptides by mass spectrometry. Relative percentage of either CD4(+)CD25(+) Tax+ cells, or Tax protein released from PBMCs, or plasma Tax, correlates neither with tax mRNA nor with proviral load. This fact could be explained by a complex regulation of Tax expression. Tax secreted from PBMCs or present in plasma could potentially become a biomarker to distinguish between HAM/TSP patients and asymptomatic carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Medina
- Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Sebastián Quintremil
- Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carolina Alberti
- Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Fabián Godoy
- Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - María E Pando
- Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Andrés Bustamante
- Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Andrés Barriga
- Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis Cartier
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Neurological Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Javier Puente
- Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Yuetsu Tanaka
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School and Faculty of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Ryukyus, Japan
| | - María A Valenzuela
- Faculty of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Eugenio Ramírez
- Faculty of Medicine, Program of Virology, ICBM, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Department of Virology, Public Health Institute of Chile, Santiago, Chile
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Martin F, Taylor GP, Jacobson S. Inflammatory manifestations of HTLV-1 and their therapeutic options. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2015; 10:1531-46. [PMID: 25340428 DOI: 10.1586/1744666x.2014.966690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Human T lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is one of the most intriguing retroviruses infecting humans. Most commonly, infection remains undetected, since it does not cause obvious harm, yet in 4-9% of patients, this infection can be devastating, causing adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and/or HTLV-1 associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). This review concentrates on all inflammatory aspects of HTLV-1 infection: HAM/TSP, HTLV-1 associated uveitis, HTLV-1 associated conjunctivitis, sicca syndrome and interstitial keratitis, HTLV-1 associated Sjögren's syndrome, Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Graves' disease, HTLV-1 associated pulmonary disease, infective dermatitis associated with HTLV-1, HTLV-1 associated inflammatory myositis and HTLV-1 associated arthritis. With the exception of HAM/TSP treatment, studies of these conditions are sparse and even for HAM/TSP, the level of evidence is limited. While control or elimination of infection remains a goal, most therapy beyond symptomatic management is directed at the immune response to HTLV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiola Martin
- Department of Biology, Hull and York Medical School, Center for Immunology and Infection, University of York, YO10 5DD, UK
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New insights into prevalence, genetic diversity, and proviral load of human T-cell leukemia virus types 1 and 2 in pregnant women in Gabon in equatorial central Africa. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46:3607-14. [PMID: 18845819 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01249-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is highly endemic in areas of central Africa; mother-to-child transmission and sexual transmission are considered to be the predominant routes. To determine the prevalence and subtypes of HTLV-1/2 in pregnant women in Gabon, we conducted an epidemiological survey in the five main cities of the country. In 907 samples, the HTLV-1 seroprevalence was 2.1%, which is lower than that previously reported. Only one case of HTLV-2 infection was found. The HTLV-1 seroprevalence increased with age and differed between regions (P </= 0.05), with the highest prevalence (5%) in the southeastern region. A wide range of HTLV-1 proviral loads was observed among the infected women. The level of the proviral load was correlated with a high HTLV-1 antibody titer (P </= 0.02). Sequencing of HTLV-1 env and long terminal repeat fragments showed that all but one strain belonged to the central African subtype B; the outlier was of cosmopolitan subtype A. The new strains of subtype B exhibited wide genetic diversity, but there was no evidence of clustering of specific genomes within geographical regions of the country. Some strains were closely related to simian T-cell leukemia virus type 1 strains of great apes, suggesting that in these areas some HTLV-1 strains could arise from relatively recent interspecies transmission. The sole HTLV-2 strain belonged to subtype B. In this study we showed that the prevalence of HTLV-1 in the southeast is one of the highest in the world for pregnant women.
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Inclusion body myositis associated with human T-lymphotropic virus-type I infection: eleven patients from an endemic area in Japan. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2008; 67:41-9. [PMID: 18091562 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e31815f38b7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the association of human T-lymphotropic virus-type I (HTLV-I) infection with sporadic inclusion body myositis in 11 patients from an endemic area in Japan. The clinical features were consistent with sporadic inclusion body myositis, and anti-HTLV-I antibodies were present in the sera of all patients. Their muscle biopsies showed the diagnostic features of inclusion body myositis, including endomysial T-cell infiltration, rimmed vacuoles, deposits of phosphorylated tau, and abnormal filaments in the nuclei and cytoplasm of the myofibers. The fibers expressed major histocompatibility complex class I antigens and were invaded by CD8 and CD4 cells. In a single human leukocyte antigen-A2-positive patient, in situ human leukocyte antigen-A*0201 / Tax11-19-pentamer staining showed pentamer-positive cells surrounding the muscle fibers. Double-immunogold silver staining and polymerase chain reaction in situ hybridization revealed that HTLV-I proviral DNA was localized on helper-inducer T cells, but not on muscle fibers. Human T-lymphotropic virus-type I proviral loads in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from each patient were similar to those in HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. This study suggests that HTLV-I infection may be one of the causes of sporadic inclusion body myositis, as has been reported in human immunodeficiency virus type-1 infection.
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Ozden S, Huerre M, Riviere JP, Coffey LL, Afonso PV, Mouly V, de Monredon J, Roger JC, El Amrani M, Yvin JL, Jaffar MC, Frenkiel MP, Sourisseau M, Schwartz O, Butler-Browne G, Desprès P, Gessain A, Ceccaldi PE. Human muscle satellite cells as targets of Chikungunya virus infection. PLoS One 2007; 2:e527. [PMID: 17565380 PMCID: PMC1885285 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0000527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2007] [Accepted: 05/17/2007] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chikungunya (CHIK) virus is a mosquito-transmitted alphavirus that causes in humans an acute infection characterised by fever, polyarthralgia, head-ache, and myalgia. Since 2005, the emergence of CHIK virus was associated with an unprecedented magnitude outbreak of CHIK disease in the Indian Ocean. Clinically, this outbreak was characterized by invalidating poly-arthralgia, with myalgia being reported in 97.7% of cases. Since the cellular targets of CHIK virus in humans are unknown, we studied the pathogenic events and targets of CHIK infection in skeletal muscle. Methodology/Principal Findings Immunohistology on muscle biopsies from two CHIK virus-infected patients with myositic syndrome showed that viral antigens were found exclusively inside skeletal muscle progenitor cells (designed as satelllite cells), and not in muscle fibers. To evaluate the ability of CHIK virus to replicate in human satellite cells, we assessed virus infection on primary human muscle cells; viral growth was observed in CHIK virus-infected satellite cells with a cytopathic effect, whereas myotubes were essentially refractory to infection. Conclusions/Significance This report provides new insights into CHIK virus pathogenesis, since it is the first to identify a cellular target of CHIK virus in humans and to report a selective infection of muscle satellite cells by a viral agent in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Ozden
- Unité Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes-CNRS URA1930, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Michel Huerre
- Unité Recherche et Expertise Histotechnologie et Pathologie, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Riviere
- Service d'Anatomopathologie, CHD Félix Guyon, Saint-Denis de la Réunion, France
| | - Lark L. Coffey
- Unité Interactions Moléculaires Flavivirus-Hôtes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Philippe V. Afonso
- Unité Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes-CNRS URA1930, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Vincent Mouly
- Inserm U787-Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Institut de Myologie, Pitié Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Jean de Monredon
- Service de Neurologie, CHD Félix Guyon, Saint-Denis de la Réunion, France
| | | | - Mohamed El Amrani
- Service de Neurologie, CHD Félix Guyon, Saint-Denis de la Réunion, France
| | - Jean-Luc Yvin
- Service de Médecine Interne, CHD Félix Guyon, Saint-Denis de la Réunion, France
| | | | | | | | | | - Gillian Butler-Browne
- Inserm U787-Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Institut de Myologie, Pitié Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Desprès
- Unité Interactions Moléculaires Flavivirus-Hôtes, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Antoine Gessain
- Unité Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes-CNRS URA1930, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Pierre-Emmanuel Ceccaldi
- Unité Epidémiologie et Physiopathologie des Virus Oncogènes-CNRS URA1930, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
- * To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Abstract
Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a retrovirus that infects about 20 million people worldwide and causes immune-mediated diseases of the nervous system. The classic neurological presentation of HTLV-1 infection is a myelopathy called HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). However, HAM/TSP is not the only neurological outcome that can result from HTLV-1 infection. In this Personal View, we show that HTLV-1 has a broader neurological spectrum than the names HAM/TSP suggest and that people infected with this virus can present with various isolated or assorted syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abelardo Q C Araujo
- The Reference Centres for Neurological Infection and HTLV, IPEC-FIOCRUZ, Brazil.
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Bibliography. Current world literature. Raynaud phenomenon, scleroderma, overlap syndromes and other fibrosing syndromes. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2006; 18:654-6. [PMID: 17053515 DOI: 10.1097/bor.0b013e328010f1cd] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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