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Maiti BK, Moura I, Moura JJG. Molybdenum-Copper Antagonism In Metalloenzymes And Anti-Copper Therapy. Chembiochem 2024; 25:e202300679. [PMID: 38205937 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
The connection between 3d (Cu) and 4d (Mo) via the "Mo-S-Cu" unit is called Mo-Cu antagonism. Biology offers case studies of such interactions in metalloproteins such as Mo/Cu-CO Dehydrogenases (Mo/Cu-CODH), and Mo/Cu Orange Protein (Mo/Cu-ORP). The CODH significantly maintains the CO level in the atmosphere below the toxic level by converting it to non-toxic CO2 for respiring organisms. Several models were synthesized to understand the structure-function relationship of these native enzymes. However, this interaction was first observed in ruminants, and they convert molybdate (MoO4 2- ) into tetrathiomolybdate (MoS4 2- ; TTM), reacting with cellular Cu to yield biological unavailable Mo/S/Cu cluster, then developing Cu-deficiency diseases. These findings inspire the use of TTM as a Cu-sequester drug, especially for treating Cu-dependent human diseases such as Wilson diseases (WD) and cancer. It is well known that a balanced Cu homeostasis is essential for a wide range of biological processes, but negative consequence leads to cell toxicity. Therefore, this review aims to connect the Mo-Cu antagonism in metalloproteins and anti-copper therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biplab K Maiti
- Department of Chemistry, School of sciences, Cluster University of Jammu, Canal Road, Jammu, 180001, India
| | - Isabel Moura
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology (FCT NOVA), Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campus, de Caparica, Portugal
| | - José J G Moura
- LAQV, REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology (FCT NOVA), Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campus, de Caparica, Portugal
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Bährle R, Böhnke S, Englhard J, Bachmann J, Perner M. Current status of carbon monoxide dehydrogenases (CODH) and their potential for electrochemical applications. BIORESOUR BIOPROCESS 2023; 10:84. [PMID: 38647803 PMCID: PMC10992861 DOI: 10.1186/s40643-023-00705-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are rising to alarming concentrations in earth's atmosphere, causing adverse effects and global climate changes. In the last century, innovative research on CO2 reduction using chemical, photochemical, electrochemical and enzymatic approaches has been addressed. In particular, natural CO2 conversion serves as a model for many processes and extensive studies on microbes and enzymes regarding redox reactions involving CO2 have already been conducted. In this review we focus on the enzymatic conversion of CO2 to carbon monoxide (CO) as the chemical conversion downstream of CO production render CO particularly attractive as a key intermediate. We briefly discuss the different currently known natural autotrophic CO2 fixation pathways, focusing on the reversible reaction of CO2, two electrons and protons to CO and water, catalyzed by carbon monoxide dehydrogenases (CODHs). We then move on to classify the different type of CODHs, involved catalyzed chemical reactions and coupled metabolisms. Finally, we discuss applications of CODH enzymes in photochemical and electrochemical cells to harness CO2 from the environment transforming it into commodity chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Bährle
- Department of Marine Geomicrobiology, Faculty of Marine Biogeochemistry, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Wischhofstr. 1-3, 24148, Kiel, Germany
| | - Stefanie Böhnke
- Department of Marine Geomicrobiology, Faculty of Marine Biogeochemistry, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Wischhofstr. 1-3, 24148, Kiel, Germany
| | - Jonas Englhard
- Chemistry of Thin Film Materials, IZNF, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Cauerstr. 3, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Julien Bachmann
- Chemistry of Thin Film Materials, IZNF, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Cauerstr. 3, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Mirjam Perner
- Department of Marine Geomicrobiology, Faculty of Marine Biogeochemistry, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Wischhofstr. 1-3, 24148, Kiel, Germany.
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Kalimuthu P, Petitgenet M, Niks D, Dingwall S, Harmer JR, Hille R, Bernhardt PV. The oxidation-reduction and electrocatalytic properties of CO dehydrogenase from Oligotropha carboxidovorans. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 2019; 1861:148118. [PMID: 31734195 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbabio.2019.148118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Revised: 10/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
CO dehydrogenase (CODH) from the Gram-negative bacterium Oligotropha carboxidovorans is a complex metalloenzyme from the xanthine oxidase family of molybdenum-containing enzymes, bearing a unique binuclear Mo-S-Cu active site in addition to two [2Fe-2S] clusters (FeSI and FeSII) and one equivalent of FAD. CODH catalyzes the oxidation of CO to CO2 with the concomitant introduction of reducing equivalents into the quinone pool, thus enabling the organism to utilize CO as sole source of both carbon and energy. Using a variety of EPR monitored redox titrations and spectroelectrochemistry, we report the redox potentials of CO dehydrogenase at pH 7.2 namely MoVI/V, MoV/IV, FeSI2+/+, FeSII2+/+, FAD/FADH and FADH/FADH-. These potentials are systematically higher than the corresponding potentials seen for other members of the xanthine oxidase family of Mo enzymes, and are in line with CODH utilising the higher potential quinone pool as an electron acceptor instead of pyridine nucleotides. CODH is also active when immobilised on a modified Au working electrode as demonstrated by cyclic voltammetry in the presence of CO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Palraj Kalimuthu
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Mélanie Petitgenet
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Dimitri Niks
- Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Stephanie Dingwall
- Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Jeffrey R Harmer
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Russ Hille
- Department of Biochemistry, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Paul V Bernhardt
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia.
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Reginald SS, Lee YS, Lee H, Jang N, Chang IS. Electrocatalytic and Biosensing Properties of Aerobic Carbon Monoxide Dehydrogenase from
Hydrogenophaga Pseudoflava
Immobilized on Au Electrode towards Carbon Monoxide Oxidation. ELECTROANAL 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/elan.201800666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stacy Simai Reginald
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental EngineeringGwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Bukgu Gwangju 61005 Republic of Korea
| | - Yoo Seok Lee
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental EngineeringGwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Bukgu Gwangju 61005 Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeryeong Lee
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental EngineeringGwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Bukgu Gwangju 61005 Republic of Korea
| | - Nulee Jang
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental EngineeringGwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Bukgu Gwangju 61005 Republic of Korea
| | - In Seop Chang
- School of Earth Sciences and Environmental EngineeringGwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) 123 Cheomdan-gwagiro, Bukgu Gwangju 61005 Republic of Korea
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Lehner AF, Horn J, Flesher JW. One electron oxidation of 3-methylcholanthrene: A chemical model for its mechanism of carcinogenesis. J Mol Struct 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2017.01.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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References. Anal Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1201/b11478-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Abass A, Hart J. Direct electrochemistry of cytochrome c at plain and membrane modified screen-printed carbon electrodes. Electrochim Acta 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0013-4686(00)00668-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Li QS, Ye BC, Liu BX, Zhong JJ. Improvement of the performance of H2O2 oxidation at low working potential by incorporating TTF-TCNQ into a platinum wire electrode for glucose determination. Biosens Bioelectron 1999; 14:327-34. [PMID: 10230033 DOI: 10.1016/s0956-5663(98)00122-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A micro-biosensor was constructed by incorporating the organic conducting salt tetrathiafulvalene-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TTF-TCNQ) into a platinized platinum (Pt) wire and further covering with the electrochemical polymerical heteropolypyrrole film, in which glucose oxidase (GOx) was entrapped. The enzyme electrode can sensitively determine glucose at a low working potential, mainly based on the oxidation of H2O2. The incorporated TTF-TCNQ can significantly improve the oxidation of H2O2 on the electrode, although a part of the TTF-TCNQ functions as a mediator. Compared with the same electrode prepared without TTF-TCNQ incorporated, the TTF-TCNQ modified electrode had better performance characteristics at a working potential of 200 mV (versus SCE). The response time to 90% of the steady value was shortened from about 40 s to less than 10 s, the lower limit of the linear response was greatly extended from about 1.6 mM to 10 microM, the linear range was shifted from 1.6-10.0 to 0.01-5 mM and the sensitivity was increased from about 1 to 1.5 microA/mM. The electrode was quite stable. For continuous operation, the electrode could work for about 5 weeks and only lost 60% of its original sensitivity. Stored at 4 degrees C for intermittent determinations, the electrode kept 80% sensitivity for over 6 months. Due to covering the electrode with a non-conductive heteropolypyrrole film, ascorbate, urate and 4-acetamidophenol caused only negligible current response at an applied potential of 200 mV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Q S Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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10
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Preliminary investigation of a bioelectrochemical sensor for the detection of phenol vapours. Biosens Bioelectron 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0956-5663(95)99232-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Luong JH, Masson C, Brown RS, Male KB, Nguyen AL. Monitoring the activity of glucose oxidase during the cultivation of Aspergillus niger using novel amperometric sensor with 1, 1'-dimethylferricinium as a mediator. Biosens Bioelectron 1994; 9:577-84. [PMID: 7826581 DOI: 10.1016/0956-5663(94)80050-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
1, 1'-dimethylferricinium (DMF+), a deep blue, and stable mediator, was prepared from a water-soluble 1, 1'-dimethylferrocene(DMF):2-hydroxypropyl- beta-cyclodextrin complex via enzymatic oxidation using immobilised bilirubin oxidase. This mediator was superior to other soluble ferrocenes, notably carboxyferrocene, in terms of both solubility (110 mM vs 0.5 mM) and oxidation potential (150 mV vs 300 mV against Ag/AgCl). Although the cyclic voltammogram of DMF+ was electrochemically equivalent to DMF, the use of the former resulted in a significantly lower background current (< 10 nA vs 30 nA). Because of its higher solubility, concentrated stock solutions of DMF+ can be prepared and supplied to the electrode. This is of particular importance when the signal is severely limited by the rate at which the working electrode can oxidase DMF to DMF+. A linear response of current versus units of glucose oxidase (GOD) was obtained up to 0.5 unit/ml. The detection limit was estimated to be 0.03 unit/ml and the response time was 2.5 min or less. The amperometric system was used successfully to follow the GOD activity during the growth of Aspergillus niger a well-known GOD producer. The results obtained correlated well with a standard absorbance-based assay using dichlorophenol-indophenol (DCPIP). The KM of GOD for the glucose in the lysate was measured as 38 mM. A reduced response and higher KM (48 mM) of the cell homogenate, compared to the lysate, illustrated the requirement for the DMF+ and glucose to diffuse across the cell membrane to interact with GOD in whole cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Luong
- Biotechnology Research Institute, National Research Council Canada, Montreal, Quebec
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Affiliation(s)
- H A Hill
- Inorganic Chemistry Laboratory, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Biosensors have been extensively studied during the last 20 years, and a myriad of laboratory biosensors have been developed. Improvements are required in biosensor design and performance before they become widely accepted in industrial process monitoring. However, as the biotechnology industry expands, biosensors may become more acceptable because, despite their limitations, they are the only devices capable of delivering the information required.
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Affiliation(s)
- S L Brooks
- Biotechnology Centre, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Bedfordshire, UK
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Ryabov AD. Wechselwirkungen und Reaktionen von Organometallverbindungen mit Enzymen und Proteinen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 1991. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.19911030806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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17
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Okuma H, Takahashi H, Sekimukai S, Kawahara K, Akahoshi R. Mediated amperometric biosensor for hypoxanthine based on a hydroxymethylferrocene-modified carbon paste electrode. Anal Chim Acta 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(00)82492-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Duine JA, van Dijken JP. Enzymes of industrial potential from methylotrophs. BIOTECHNOLOGY (READING, MASS.) 1991; 18:233-52. [PMID: 1909915 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-7506-9188-8.50017-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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20
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Black GW, Lyons CM, Williams E, Colby J, Kehoe M, O'Reilly C. Cloning and expression of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase genes from Pseudomonas thermocarboxydovorans strain C2. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1990. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1990.tb14005.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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21
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Ikeda T, Shibata T, Senda M. Amperometric enzyme electrode for maltose based on an oligosaccharide dehydrogenase-modified carbon paste electrode containing p-benzoquinone. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1989. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-0728(89)85004-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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22
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Coughlan MP, Kierstan MP, Border PM, Turner AP. Analytical applications of immobilised proteins and cells. J Microbiol Methods 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/0167-7012(88)90039-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Frew JE, Hill HA. Direct and indirect electron transfer between electrodes and redox proteins. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1988; 172:261-9. [PMID: 3280307 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1988.tb13882.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The direct electrochemistry of redox proteins has been achieved at a variety of electrodes, including modified gold, pyrolytic graphite and metal oxides. Careful design of electrode surfaces and electrolyte conditions are required for the attainment of rapid and reversible protein-electrode interaction. The electron transfer reactions of more complex systems, such as redox enzymes, are now being examined. The 'well-behaved' electrochemistry of redox proteins can be usefully exploited by coupling the electrode reaction to enzymes for which the redox proteins act as cofactors. In systems where direct electron transfer is very slow, small electron carriers, or mediators, may be employed to enhance the rate of electron exchange with the electrode. The organometallic compound ferrocene and its derivatives have proved particularly effective in this role. A new generation of electrochemical biosensors employs ferrocene derivatives as mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Frew
- Genetics International (UK) Inc., Abingdon
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25
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TURNER ANTHONYPF. Amperometric Biosensors Based on Modified Porous Graphite Electrodes. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1987. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb45775.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Mascini M, Memoli A, Olana F. Electrochemical biosensors for determination of nystatin activity. Anal Chim Acta 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(00)83772-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Meyer O, Jacobitz S, Krüger B. Biochemistry and physiology of aerobic carbon monoxide-utilizing bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1986. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1986.tb01858.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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Davis G, Green MJ, Hill HO. Detection of ATP and creatine kinase using an enzyme electrode. Enzyme Microb Technol 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/0141-0229(86)90134-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Frew JE, Harmer MA, O. Hill H, .Libor SI. A method for estimation of hydrogen peroxide based on mediated electron transfer reactions of peroxidases at electrodes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/0022-0728(86)90083-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Mediated amperometric biosensors for d-galactose, glycolate and l-amino acids based on a ferrocene-modified carbon paste electrode. Anal Chim Acta 1986. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(00)82441-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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D'Costa EJ, Higgins IJ, Turner AP. Quinoprotein glucose dehydrogenase and its application in an amperometric glucose sensor. BIOSENSORS 1986; 2:71-87. [PMID: 3454651 DOI: 10.1016/0265-928x(86)80011-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Glucose dehydrogenase (GDH), one of the recently discovered NAD(P)+-independent 'quinoprotein' class of oxidoreductase enzymes, was purified from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus LMD 79.41 and immobilised on a 1,1'-dimethylferrocene-modified graphite foil electrode. The second-order rate constant (ks) for the transfer of electrons between GDH and ferrocenemonocarboxylic acid (FMCA) in a homogeneous system, determined using direct current (DC) cyclic voltammetry, was found to be 9.4 x 10(6) litres mol-1 s-1. This value of ks for GDH was more than 40 times greater than that for the flavoprotein glucose oxidase (GOD) under identical conditions. Such high catalytic activities were also observed when GDH was immobilised in the presence of an insoluble ferrocene derivative; a biosensor based on GDH was found to produce more than twice the current density of similar GOD-based electrodes. The steady-state current produced by the GDH-based electrode was limited by the enzymic reaction since methods which increased the enzyme loadings elevated the upper limit of glucose detection from 5 mM to 15 mM. The temperature, pH, stability and response characteristics of the GDH-based glucose sensor illustrate its potential usefulness for a variety of practical applications. In particular, the high catalytic activity and oxygen insensitivity of this biosensor make it suitable for in vivo blood glucose monitoring in the management of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- E J D'Costa
- Biotechnology Centre, Cranfield Institute of Technology, Bedford, Great Britain
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35
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Rohde M, Mayer F, Jacobitz S, Meyer O. Attachment of CO dehydrogenase to the cytoplasmic membrane is limiting the respiratory rate ofPseudomonas carboxydovorans. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1985. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1985.tb00780.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Davis G. Electrochemical techniques for the development of amperometric biosensors. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 1985. [DOI: 10.1016/0265-928x(85)80002-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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