Oxidative DNA damage induced by photodegradation products of 3(')-azido-3(')-deoxythymidine

Study of DNA damage caused by dipyrone in presence of some transition metal ions

The DNA damage in the presence of dipyrone (used as its sodium salt, NaDip) and some transition metal ions in an air saturated ([O₂] ≈ 0.25 mM) non-buffered solution at T = (25.0 ± 0.5)°C was investigated by agarose gel electrophoresis. As metal ions Cu²⁺, Fe³⁺, Ni²⁺ and Mn³⁺ were selected and evaluated in the present study because of the important role they play in a biological system. pUC19 plasmid DNA damage-induced by NaDip (80-600 μM) was observed in the presence of 100 μM Cu²⁺. The damage was proportional to the NaDip concentration provided that the order of addition of reagents (pUC19 plasmid DNA + Cu²⁺ + NaDip) is obeyed. Addition in the reaction medium of ligands for Cu²⁺ and Cu⁺, respectively EDTA and neocuproine, promoted total inhibition or reduction of the pUC19 plasmid DNA damage suggesting the involvement of the Cu²⁺/Cu⁺ cycle. Besides, the decrease in the pUC19 plasmid DNA damage after addition of catalase (1.0 × 10^-4 mg μL^-1) in the same reaction medium indicates that H₂O₂ is also involved in the damage process. In NaDip concentration range (80-600 μM), and under same the experimental conditions, it was not possible to conclude whether there was pUC19 plasmid DNA damage caused by 10 μM Fe³⁺. No damage was observed in the presence of Mn³⁺ or Ni²⁺. Although the technique used in this study is sensitive to detect the pUC19 plasmid DNA damage it was not possible to identify in which DNA base this damage occurs. Further studies with other techniques should be made to unambiguously identify the oxidative intermediates that are responsible for the DNA damage. As far as we know, this is the first study dealing with the pUC19 plasmid DNA damage-induced by NaDip in presence of copper, iron, nickel and manganese ions.

Co-occurrence of Photochemical and Microbiological Transformation Processes in Open-Water Unit Process Wetlands

The fate of anthropogenic trace organic contaminants in surface waters can be complex due to the occurrence of multiple parallel and consecutive transformation processes. In this study, the removal of five antiviral drugs (abacavir, acyclovir, emtricitabine, lamivudine and zidovudine) via both bio- and phototransformation processes, was investigated in laboratory microcosm experiments simulating an open-water unit process wetland receiving municipal wastewater effluent. Phototransformation was the main removal mechanism for abacavir, zidovudine, and emtricitabine, with half-lives (t1/2,photo) in wetland water of 1.6, 7.6, and 25 h, respectively. In contrast, removal of acyclovir and lamivudine was mainly attributable to slower microbial processes (t1/2,bio = 74 and 120 h, respectively). Identification of transformation products revealed that bio- and phototransformation reactions took place at different moieties. For abacavir and zidovudine, rapid transformation was attributable to high reactivity of the cyclopropylamine and azido moieties, respectively. Despite substantial differences in kinetics of different antiviral drugs, biotransformation reactions mainly involved oxidation of hydroxyl groups to the corresponding carboxylic acids. Phototransformation rates of parent antiviral drugs and their biotransformation products were similar, indicating that prior exposure to microorganisms (e.g., in a wastewater treatment plant or a vegetated wetland) would not affect the rate of transformation of the part of the molecule susceptible to phototransformation. However, phototransformation strongly affected the rates of biotransformation of the hydroxyl groups, which in some cases resulted in greater persistence of phototransformation products.

Investigation of reactions postulated to occur during inhibition of ribonucleotide reductases by 2'-azido-2'-deoxynucleotides

Model 3'-azido-3'-deoxynucleosides with thiol or vicinal dithiol substituents at C2' or C5' were synthesized to study reactions postulated to occur during inhibition of ribonucleotide reductases by 2'-azido-2'-deoxynucleotides. Esterification of 5'-(tert-butyldiphenylsilyl)-3'-azido-3'-deoxyadenosine and 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (AZT) with 2,3-S-isopropylidene-2,3-dimercaptopropanoic acid or N-Boc-S-trityl-L-cysteine and deprotection gave 3'-azido-3'-deoxy-2'-O-(2,3-dimercaptopropanoyl or cysteinyl)adenosine and the 3'-azido-3'-deoxy-5'-O-(2,3-dimercaptopropanoyl or cysteinyl)thymidine analogs. Density functional calculations predicted that intramolecular reactions between generated thiyl radicals and an azido group on such model compounds would be exothermic by 33.6-41.2 kcal/mol and have low energy barriers of 10.4-13.5 kcal/mol. Reduction of the azido group occurred to give 3'-amino-3'-deoxythymidine, which was postulated to occur with thiyl radicals generated by treatment of 3'-azido-3'-deoxy-5'-O-(2,3-dimercaptopropanoyl)thymidine with 2,2'-azobis-(2-methyl-2-propionamidine) dihydrochloride. Gamma radiolysis of N(2)O-saturated aqueous solutions of AZT and cysteine produced 3'-amino-3'-deoxythymidine and thymine most likely by both radical and ionic processes.

Absence of mitochondrial toxicity in hearts of transgenic mice treated with abacavir

Abacavir (ABC) is a guanosine nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) with potent antiretroviral activity. Since NRTIs exhibit tissue-specific inhibition of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) synthesis, the ability of ABC to inhibit mtDNA synthesis in vivo was evaluated. Inbred wild-type (WT) and transgenic mice (TG) treated with ABC (3.125 mg/d p. o., 35 days) were used to define mitochondrial oxidative stress and cardiac function. Chosen TGs exhibited overexpression of HIV-1 viral proteins (NL4-3Deltagag/pol, non-replication competent), hemizygous depletion or overexpression of mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (SOD2(+/-) knock-out (KO) or MnSOD OX, respectively), overexpression of mitochondrially targeted catalase (MCAT), or double "knockout" deletion of aldehyde dehydrogenase activity (ALDH2 KO). Impact on mtDNA synthesis was assessed by comparing changes in mtDNA abundance between ABC-treated and vehicle-treated WTs and TGs. No changes in mtDNA abundance occurred from ABC treatment in any mice, suggesting no inhibition of mtDNA synthesis. Left ventricle (LV) mass and LV end-diastolic dimension (LVEDD) were defined echocardiographically and remained unchanged as well. These results indicate that treatment with ABC has no visible cardiotoxicity in these adult mice exposed for 5 weeks compared to findings with other antiretroviral NRTI studies and support some claims for its relative safety.

DNA damage and estrogenic activity induced by the environmental pollutant 2-nitrotoluene and its metabolite

OBJECTIVES

The environmental pollutant 2-nitrotoluene (2-NO(2)-T) is carcinogenic and reproductively toxic in animals. In this study, we elucidated the mechanisms of its carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity.

METHODS

We examined DNA damage induced by 2-NO(2)-T and its metabolite, 2-nitrosotoluene (2-NO-T), using (32)P-5'-end-labeled DNA. We measured 8-oxo-7, 8-dihydro-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodG), an indicator of oxidative DNA damage, in calf thymus DNA and cellular DNA in cultured human leukemia (HL-60) cells treated with 2-NO(2)-T and 2-NO-T. 8-Oxoguanine DNA glycosylase (OGG1) gene expression in HL-60 cells was measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We examined estrogenic activity using an E-screen assay and a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor.

RESULTS

In experiments with isolated DNA fragments, 2-NO-T induced oxidative DNA damage in the presence of Cu (II) and β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide disodium salt (reduced form) (NADH), while 2-NO(2)-T did not. 2-NO-T significantly increased levels of 8-oxodG in HL-60 cells. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis revealed upregulation of OGG1 gene expression induced by 2-NO-T. An E-screen assay using the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 revealed that 2-NO(2)-T induced estrogen-dependent cell proliferation. In contrast, 2-NO-T decreased the cell number and suppressed 17β-estradiol-induced cell proliferation. The data obtained with the SPR sensor using estrogen receptor α and the estrogen response element supported the results of the E-screen assay.

CONCLUSIONS

Oxidative DNA damage caused by 2-NO-T and estrogen-disrupting effects caused by 2-NO(2)-T and 2-NO-T may play a role in the reproductive toxicity and carcinogenicity of these entities.

Transgenic mitochondrial superoxide dismutase and mitochondrially targeted catalase prevent antiretroviral-induced oxidative stress and cardiomyopathy

Transgenic mice (TG) were used to define mitochondrial oxidative stress and cardiomyopathy (CM) induced by zidovudine (AZT), an antiretroviral used to treat HIV/AIDS. Genetically engineered mice either depleted or overexpressed mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (SOD2(+/-) KOs and SOD2-OX, respectively) or expressed mitochondrially targeted catalase (mCAT). TGs and wild-type (WT) littermates were treated (oral AZT, 35 days). Cardiac mitochondrial H(2)O(2), aconitase activity, histology and ultrastructure were analyzed. Left ventricle (LV) mass and LV end-diastolic dimension were determined echocardiographically. AZT induced cardiac oxidative stress and LV dysfunction in WTs. Cardiac mitochondrial H(2)O(2) increased and aconitase was inactivated in SOD2(+/-) KOs, and cardiac dysfunction was worsened by AZT. Conversely, the cardiac function in SOD2-OX and mCAT hearts was protected. In SOD2-OX and mCAT TG hearts, mitochondrial H(2)O(2), LV mass and LV cavity volume resembled corresponding values from vehicle-treated WTs. AZT worsens cardiac dysfunction and increases mitochondrial H(2)O(2) in SOD2(+/-) KO. Conversely, both SOD2-OX and mCAT TGs prevent or attenuate AZT-induced cardiac oxidative stress and LV dysfunction. As dysfunctional changes are ameliorated by decreasing and worsened by increasing H(2)O(2) abundance, oxidative stress from H(2)O(2) is crucial pathogenetically in AZT-induced mitochondrial CM.

Mitochondrial function, morphology and metabolic parameters improve after switching from stavudine to a tenofovir-containing regimen

OBJECTIVES

HIV-associated lipoatrophy has been associated with mitochondrial dysfunction induced by nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor therapy. We hypothesize that lipid profiles and markers of mitochondrial function will improve in HIV-lipoatrophic patients switched to the nucleotide analogue tenofovir.

METHODS

Ten patients receiving stavudine, lamivudine and lopinavir/ritonavir (Kaletra(R)) for over 6 years were switched from stavudine to tenofovir for 48 weeks. Subcutaneous fat tissue biopsies, fasting metabolic tests, HIV RNA, CD4 cell count and whole body dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scans were obtained at study entry and week 48. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copies/cell and mitochondrial morphology were assessed in adipose tissue biopsies, mtDNA 8-oxo-deoxyguanine in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and glutathione (GSH) and F2-isoprostane in plasma.

RESULTS

There was no change in limb fat mass by DEXA; however, trunk fat mass increased by 18.9% (P = 0.01). Fasting total cholesterol decreased by 33 mg/dL (P = 0.005) and serum glucose decreased by 4 mg/dL (P = 0.039). mtDNA copies/cell increased from 386 to 1537 (P < 0.001). Transmission electron microscopy showed that mitochondrial cristae were lacking or poorly defined at study entry, whereas mitochondrial inner structures were more well defined and outer membranes were intact at 48 weeks. Oxidative damage decreased in 8/10 patients, GSH increased and F2-isoprostane decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

The results from this study demonstrate that systemic and peripheral fat mitochondria improve in patients switched to tenofovir following long-term exposure to stavudine, while continuing protease inhibitor therapy.

Pharmacokinetic and Molecular Biological Approaches to Achieve the Safety and Effective Management of Drug Therapies

To prevent medical errors, especially drug-related ones, clinical pharmacists have to play an important role in multidisciplinary team care. We have investigated the pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and molecular biology of several drugs and have applied the findings obtained in our studies to therapeutic drug monitoring. The first finding is that achieving vancomycin (VCM) concentrations at an appropriate concentration contributes to a decreased incidence of VCM-induced nephrotoxicity and a decreased duration of VCM therapy. From this result, we have constructed a system to provided recommendations for VCM doses to attending medical staff as soon as possible. The second finding is that we clarified the risk factors for steroid-induced diabetes in patients with neurologic diseases, indicating a close relationship among postprandial hyperglycemia, advanced age, and hypercholesterolemia in these patients. We also determined that monitoring plasma glucose concentrations 2 hours after lunch could be useful to detect diabetes in these patients. Finally, we identified the mechanism of 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine and dacarbazine photogenotoxicity, including the specific site of DNA damage. These findings may provide useful information to prevent phototoxicity of drugs and to develop new photodynamic therapies.

Proteins pattern alteration in AZT-treated K562 cells detected by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and peptide mass fingerprinting

In this study we report the effect of AZT on the whole protein expression profile both in the control and the AZT-treated K562 cells, evidenced by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and peptide mass fingerprinting analysis. Two-dimensional gels computer digital image analysis showed two spots that appeared up-regulated in AZT-treated cells and one spot present only in the drug exposed samples. Upon extraction and analysis by peptide mass fingerprinting, the first two spots were identified as PDI-A3 and stathmin, while the third one was proved to be NDPK-A. Conversely, two protein spots were present only in the untreated K562 cells, and were identified as SOD1 and HSP-60, respectively.

Nature of DNA lesions induced in human hepatoma cells, human colonic cells and human embryonic lung fibroblasts by the antiretroviral drug 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine

This study tried to clarify the question if nuclear genotoxicity played a role in 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (AZT) toxicity. We investigated cytotoxic and DNA-damaging effects of AZT on human hepatoma HepG2 and human colonic CaCo-2 cells as well as on human diploid lung fibroblasts HEL. The amount of induced DNA damage was measured by standard alkaline single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE). The nature of induced DNA lesions was evaluated (1) by modified SCGE, which includes treatment of lysed cells with DNA repair enzymes Endo III and Fpg and enables to recognize oxidized bases of DNA, and (2) by SCGE processed in parallel at pH 13.0 (standard technique) and pH 12.1, which enables to recognize alkali labile DNA lesions and direct DNA strand breaks. Cytotoxicity of AZT was evaluated by the trypan blue exclusion technique. Our findings showed that 3-h treatment of cells with AZT decreased the viability of all cell lines studied. SCGE performed in the presence of DNA repair enzymes proved that AZT induced oxidative lesions to DNA in all cell types. In hepatoma HepG2 cells and embryonic lung fibroblasts HEL the majority of AZT-induced DNA strand breaks were pH-independent, i.e. they were identified at both pH values (12.1 and 13.0). These DNA lesions represented direct DNA breaks. In colonic Caco-2 cells DNA lesions were converted to DNA strand breaks particularly under strong alkaline conditions (pH>13.0), which is characteristic for alkali-labile sites of DNA. DNA strand break rejoining was investigated by the standard comet assay technique during 48 h of post-AZT-treatment in HepG2 and Caco-2 cells. The kinetics of DNA rejoining, considered an indicator of DNA repair, revealed that AZT-induced DNA breaks were repaired in both cell types slowly, though HepG2 cells seemed to be more repair proficient with respect to AZT-induced DNA lesions.