Cytochrome b559 of photosystem II

Genetic dissection of flag leaf morphology traits and fine mapping of a novel QTL (Qflw.sxau-6BL) in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

KEY MESSAGE

Total 60-QRC for FLM traits were detected by meta-genomics analysis, nine major and stable QTL identified by DH population and validated, and a novel QTL  Qflw.sxau-6BL was fine mapped. The flag leaf is an "ideotypic" morphological trait providing photosynthetic assimilates in wheat. Although flag leaf morphology (FLM) traits had been extensively investigated through genetic mapping, there is a desire for FLM-related loci to be validated in multi-environments and fine mapping. In order to identify the stable genomic regions for FLM traits, we conducted a meta-genomic analysis based on reports from 2008 to 2024. Experimentally, a doubled haploid (DH) population was used to assess the genetic regions associated with FLM traits in nine environments. The meta-genomic analysis extracted 60 QTL-rich clusters (QRC), 45 of which were verified in marker-trait association (MTA) study. Nine major and stable QTL were found being associated with FLM traits across three-to-seven environments including BLUP, with phenotypic variance explained (PVE) ranging from 5.05 to 34.95%. The KASP markers of the nine QTL were validated (P < 0.005) in more than three environments using a panel of diverse wheat collections from Shanxi Province in China. Two co-located major and stable QTL viz. Qflw.sxau-6B.5 and Qfla.sxau-6B.4 were found novel and contributed to increase FLW by 12.09-19.21% and FLA by 5.45-13.28%. They also demonstrated high recombination rates in LD analysis based on the resequencing of 145 wheat landmark cultivars. The fine mapping of Qflw.sxau-6BL narrowed it down to a 1.27 Mb region as a result of the combined genotypic and phenotypic analysis for secondary mapping population. Comparing to NIL-ND3338, the NIL-LF5064 showed higher FLW by 20.45-27.37%, thousand-grain weight by 1.88-2.57% and grain length by 0.47-2.30% across all environments. The expression analysis of 11 tissues revealed seven highly expressed genes within the fine map region. This study provides a genetic basis for the FLM traits for further map-based cloning of FLW genes in wheat.

Architecture and functional regulation of a plant PSII-LHCII megacomplex

Photosystem II (PSII) splits water in oxygenic photosynthesis on Earth. The structure and function of the C4S4M2-type PSII-LHCII (light-harvesting complex II) megacomplexes from the wild-type and PsbR-deletion mutant plants are studied through electron microscopy (EM), structural mass spectrometry, and ultrafast fluorescence spectroscopy [time-resolved fluorescence (TRF)]. The cryo-EM structure of a type I C4S4M2 megacomplex demonstrates that the three domains of PsbR bind to the stromal side of D1, D2, and CP43; associate with the single transmembrane helix of the redox active Cyt b559; and stabilize the luminal extrinsic PsbP, respectively. This megacomplex, with PsbR and PsbY centered around the narrow interface between two dimeric PSII cores, provides the supramolecular structural basis that regulates the plastoquinone occupancy in QB site, excitation energy transfer, and oxygen evolution. PSII-LHCII megacomplexes (types I and II) and LHC aggregation levels in Arabidopsis psbR mutant were also interrogated and compared to wild-type plants through EM and picosecond TRF.

Membrane protein provision controls prothylakoid biogenesis in tobacco etioplasts

The cytochrome b559 heterodimer is a conserved component of photosystem II whose physiological role in photosynthetic electron transfer is enigmatic. A particularly puzzling aspect of cytochrome b559 has been its presence in etiolated seedlings, where photosystem II is absent. Whether or not the cytochrome has a specific function in etioplasts is unknown. Here, we have attempted to address the function of cytochrome b559 by generating transplastomic tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants that overexpress psbE and psbF, the plastid genes encoding the two cytochrome b559 apoproteins. We show that strong overaccumulation of the PsbE apoprotein can be achieved in etioplasts by suitable manipulations of the promoter and the translation signals, while the cytochrome b559 level is only moderately elevated. The surplus PsbE protein causes striking ultrastructural alterations in etioplasts; most notably, it causes a condensed prolamellar body and a massive proliferation of prothylakoids, with multiple membrane layers coiled into spiral-like structures. Analysis of plastid lipids revealed that increased PsbE biosynthesis strongly stimulated plastid lipid biosynthesis, suggesting that membrane protein abundance controls prothylakoid membrane biogenesis. Our data provide evidence for a structural role of PsbE in prolamellar body formation and prothylakoid biogenesis, and indicate that thylakoid membrane protein abundance regulates lipid biosynthesis in etioplasts.

Independent Mutation of Two Bridging Carboxylate Ligands Stabilizes Alternate Conformers of the Photosynthetic O2-Evolving Mn4CaO5 Cluster in Photosystem II

The O2-evolving Mn4CaO5 cluster in photosystem II is ligated by six carboxylate residues. One of these is D170 of the D1 subunit. This carboxylate bridges between one Mn ion (Mn4) and the Ca ion. A second carboxylate ligand is D342 of the D1 subunit. This carboxylate bridges between two Mn ions (Mn1 and Mn2). D170 and D342 are located on opposite sides of the Mn4CaO5 cluster. Recently, it was shown that the D170E mutation perturbs both the intricate networks of H-bonds that surround the Mn4CaO5 cluster and the equilibrium between different conformers of the cluster in two of its lower oxidation states, S1 and S2, while still supporting O2 evolution at approximately 50% the rate of the wild type. In this study, we show that the D342E mutation produces much the same alterations to the cluster's FTIR and EPR spectra as D170E, while still supporting O2 evolution at approximately 20% the rate of the wild type. Furthermore, the double mutation, D170E + D342E, behaves similarly to the two single mutations. We conclude that D342E alters the equilibrium between different conformers of the cluster in its S1 and S2 states in the same manner as D170E and perturbs the H-bond networks in a similar fashion. This is the second identification of a Mn4CaO5 metal ligand whose mutation influences the equilibrium between the different conformers of the S1 and S2 states without eliminating O2 evolution. This finding has implications for our understanding of the mechanism of O2 formation in terms of catalytically active/inactive conformations of the Mn4CaO5 cluster in its lower oxidation states.

Far-red photosynthesis: Two charge separation pathways exist in plant Photosystem II reaction center

An alternative charge separation pathway in Photosystem II under the far-red light was proposed by us on the basis of electron transfer properties at 295 K and 5 K. Here we extend these studies to the temperature range of 77-295 K with help of electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Induction of the S2 state multiline signal, oxidation of Cytochrome b559 and ChlorophyllZ was studied in Photosystem II membrane preparations from spinach after application of a laser flashes in visible (532 nm) or far-red (730-750 nm) spectral regions. Temperature dependence of the S2 state signal induction after single flash at 730-750 nm (Tinhibition ~ 240 K) was found to be different than that at 532 nm (Tinhibition ~ 157 K). No contaminant oxidation of the secondary electron donors cytochrome b559 or chlorophyllZ was observed. Photoaccumulation experiments with extensive flashing at 77 K showed similar results, with no or very little induction of the secondary electron donors. Thus, the partition ratio defined as (yield of YZ/CaMn4O5-cluster oxidation):(yield of Cytb559/ChlZ/CarD2 oxidation) was found to be 0.4 at under visible light and 1.7 at under far-red light at 77 K. Our data indicate that different products of charge separation after far-red light exists in the wide temperature range which further support the model of the different primary photochemistry in Photosystem II with localization of hole on the ChlD1 molecule.

A possible relationship between the effect of factors on photoactivation of photosystem II depleted of functional Mn and cytochrome b559

The photoassembly of the Mn4CaO5 cluster in Mn-depleted photosystem II preparations (photoactivation) was studied under the influence of oxidants, reductants and pH. New data on the effect of these factors on the photoactivation yield are presented. The presence of the oxidant, ferricyanide, negatively affected the photoactivation yield over the entire concentration range studied (0-1 mM). In contrast to ferricyanide, the addition of the reductant, ferrocyanide, up to 1 mM resulted in an increase in the photoactivation yield. Other reductants either did not significantly affect (diphenylcarbazide) or suppressed (ascorbate) the photoactivation yield. The effect of ferrocyanide on photoactivation were found to be similar dichlorophenolindophenol. Investigation of the photoactivation yield as a function of pH revealed that the maximum yield was observed at pH 6.5 in the presence of ferrocyanide and DCPIP, and at pH 5.5 without additives. In addition, the photoactivation yield at pH 5.5 was the same without and with the addition of ferrocyanide or dichlorophenolindophenol. Although ferricyanide suppressed the photoactivation, the photoactivation yield increased in the presence of ferricyanide by shifting the pH to the acidic region. The samples contained approximately 25 % of the HP cyt b559, which was in the reduced state, as the absorbance at 559 nm was decreased upon addition of ferricyanide and subsequent addition of ferrocyanide returned the spectrum to the baseline. A possible relationship between the effect of factors on the photoactivation and the involvement of cyt b559 in the protection of PSII from oxidative damage on the donor side is discussed.

Quantification of energy-converting protein complexes in plant thylakoid membranes

Knowledge about the exact abundance and ratio of photosynthetic protein complexes in thylakoid membranes is central to understanding structure-function relationships in energy conversion. Recent modeling approaches for studying light harvesting and electron transport reactions rely on quantitative information on the constituent complexes in thylakoid membranes. Over the last decades several quantitative methods have been established and refined, enabling precise stoichiometric information on the five main energy-converting building blocks in the thylakoid membrane: Light-harvesting complex II (LHCII), Photosystem II (PSII), Photosystem I (PSI), cytochrome b₆f complex (cyt b₆f complex), and ATPase. This paper summarizes a few quantitative spectroscopic and biochemical methods that are currently available for quantification of plant thylakoid protein complexes. Two new methods are presented for quantification of LHCII and the cyt b₆f complex, which agree well with established methods. In addition, recent improvements in mass spectrometry (MS) allow deeper compositional information on thylakoid membranes. The comparison between mass spectrometric and more classical protein quantification methods shows similar quantities of complexes, confirming the potential of thylakoid protein complex quantification by MS. The quantitative information on PSII, PSI, and LHCII reveal that about one third of LHCII must be associated with PSI for a balanced light energy absorption by the two photosystems.

New Structural and Mechanistic Insights Into Functional Roles of Cytochrome b 559 in Photosystem II

Cytochrome (Cyt) b ₅₅₉ is a key component of the photosystem II (PSII) complex for its assembly and proper function. Previous studies have suggested that Cytb ₅₅₉ has functional roles in early assembly of PSII and in secondary electron transfer pathways that protect PSII against photoinhibition. In addition, the Cytb ₅₅₉ in various PSII preparations exhibited multiple different redox potential forms. However, the precise functional roles of Cytb ₅₅₉ in PSII remain unclear. Recent site-directed mutagenesis studies combined with functional genomics and biochemical analysis, as well as high-resolution x-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy studies on native, inactive, and assembly intermediates of PSII have provided important new structural and mechanistic insights into the functional roles of Cytb ₅₅₉. This mini-review gives an overview of new exciting results and their significance for understanding the structural and functional roles of Cytb ₅₅₉ in PSII.

Structural insights into photosystem II assembly

Biogenesis of photosystem II (PSII), nature's water-splitting catalyst, is assisted by auxiliary proteins that form transient complexes with PSII components to facilitate stepwise assembly events. Using cryo-electron microscopy, we solved the structure of such a PSII assembly intermediate from Thermosynechococcus elongatus at 2.94 Å resolution. It contains three assembly factors (Psb27, Psb28 and Psb34) and provides detailed insights into their molecular function. Binding of Psb28 induces large conformational changes at the PSII acceptor side, which distort the binding pocket of the mobile quinone (Q_B) and replace the bicarbonate ligand of non-haem iron with glutamate, a structural motif found in reaction centres of non-oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. These results reveal mechanisms that protect PSII from damage during biogenesis until water splitting is activated. Our structure further demonstrates how the PSII active site is prepared for the incorporation of the Mn₄CaO₅ cluster, which performs the unique water-splitting reaction.

Trehalose matrix effects on electron transfer in Mn-depleted protein-pigment complexes of Photosystem II

The kinetics of flash-induced re-reduction of the Photosystem II (PS II) primary electron donor P₆₈₀ was studied in solution and in trehalose glassy matrices at different relative humidity. In solution, and in the re-dissolved glass, kinetics were dominated by two fast components with lifetimes in the range of 2-7 μs, which accounted for >85% of the decay. These components were ascribed to the direct electron transfer from the redox-active tyrosine Y_Z to P₆₈₀⁺. The minor slower components were due to charge recombination between the primary plastoquinone acceptor Q_A^- and P₆₈₀⁺. Incorporation of the PS II complex into the trehalose glassy matrix and its successive dehydration caused a progressive increase in the lifetime of all kinetic phases, accompanied by an increase of the amplitudes of the slower phases at the expense of the faster phases. At 63% relative humidity the fast components contribution dropped to ~50%. A further dehydration of the trehalose glass did not change the lifetimes and contribution of the kinetic components. This effect was ascribed to the decrease of conformational mobility of the protein domain between Y_Z and P₆₈₀, which resulted in the inhibition of Y_Z → P₆₈₀⁺ electron transfer in about half of the PS II population, wherein the recombination between Q_A^- and P₆₈₀⁺ occurred. The data indicate that PS II binds a larger number of water molecules as compared to PS I complexes. We conclude that our data disprove the "water replacement" hypothesis of trehalose matrix biopreservation.

Integrated physiological and chloroplast proteome analysis of wheat seedling leaves under salt and osmotic stresses

In this study, we performed an integrated physiological and chloroplast proteome analysis of wheat seedling leaves under salt and osmotic stresses by label-free based quantitative proteomic approach. Both salt and osmotic stresses significantly increased the levels of abscisic acid and methyl jasmonate and led to damages of chloroplast ultrastructure. Main parameters of chlorophyll fluorescence and gas exchange showed a significant decline under both stresses. Quantitative proteomic analysis identified 194 and 169 chloroplast-localized differentially accumulated proteins (DAPs) responsive to salt and osmotic stresses, respectively. The abundance of main DAPs involved in light-dependent reaction were increased under salt stress, but decreased in response to osmotic stress. On the contrary, salt stress induced a significant upregulation of the DAPs associated with Calvin cycle, transcription and translation, amino acid metabolism, carbon and nitrogen metabolism, and some of them exhibited a downregulation under osmotic stress. In particular, both treatments significantly upregulated the DAPs involved in plastoglobule development, protein folding and proteolysis, hormone and vitamin synthesis. Finally, we proposed a putative synergistic responsive network of wheat chloroplast proteome under salt and osmotic stresses, aiming to provide new insights into the underlying response and defense mechanisms of wheat chloroplast proteome in response to abiotic stresses. SIGNIFICANCE: Salt and osmotic stresses are the two most common abiotic stresses that severely affect crop growth and productivity. As the main site of photosynthesis of plant cells, the chloroplast also plays important role in plant tolerance to abiotic stress. However, the response of chloroplast proteome to salt and osmotic is still poorly understood by using the traditional two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) method due to a poor resolution of chloroplast protein separation and low throughput identification of differentially accumulated proteins (DAPs). In this study, we employed label-free based quantitative proteomic approach to perform an integrated physiological and large-scale chloroplast proteome analysis of wheat seedling leaves under salt and osmotic stresses, which laid a solid foundation for future studies into the response and defense mechanisms of wheat chloroplast in response to abiotic stresses.

A trigger mechanism of herbicides to phytoplankton blooms: From the standpoint of hormesis involving cytochrome b559, reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide

The cause of phytoplankton blooms has been extensively discussed and largely attributed to favorable external conditions such as nitrogen/phosphorus resources, pH and temperature. Here from the standpoint of hormesis response, we propose that phytoplankton blooms are initiated by stimulatory effects of low concentrations of herbicides as environmental contaminants spread over estuaries and lakes. The experimental results revealed general stimulations by herbicides on Microcystis aeruginosa and Selenastrum capricornutum, with the maximum stimulation in the 30-60% range, depending on the agent and experiment. In parallel with enhancing stimulation, the ratio of HP (high-potential) form to LP (low-potential) form of cytochrome b₅₅₉ (RHL) was observed decreasing, while intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were observed increasing. We propose that the ROS originated from the thermodynamic transformation of cytochrome b₅₅₉, enhancing the stimulatory response. Furthermore, the results also proved that thermodynamic states of cytochrome b₅₅₉ could be modulated by nitric oxide, thus affecting cellular equilibrium of oxidative stress (OS) and correspondingly causing the inhibitory effect of higher concentrations of herbicides on phytoplankton. This suggests that hormesis substantially derives from equilibrium shifting of OS. Moreover, it is reasonable to infer that phytoplankton blooms would be motivated by herbicides or other environmental pollutants. This study provides a new thought into global phytoplankton blooms from a contaminant perspective.

Site-directed mutagenesis of two amino acid residues in cytochrome b559 α subunit that interact with a phosphatidylglycerol molecule (PG772) induces quinone-dependent inhibition of photosystem II activity

X-ray crystallographic analysis (1.9-Å resolution) of the cyanobacterial photosystem II (PSII) dimer showed the presence of five phosphatidylglycerol (PG) molecules per reaction center. One of the PG molecules, PG772, is located in the vicinity of the Q_B-binding site. To investigate the role of PG772 in PSII, we performed site-directed mutagenesis in the cytochrome (Cyt) b₅₅₉ α subunit of Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 to change two amino acids, Thr-5 and Ser-11, which interact with PG772. The photosynthetic activity of intact cells was slightly lower in all mutants than that of cells in the control strain; however, the oxygen-evolving PSII activity was decreased markedly in cells of mutants, as measured using artificial quinones (such as p-benzoquinone). Furthermore, electron transport from Q_A to Q_B was inhibited in mutants incubated with quinones, particularly under high-intensity light conditions. Lipid analysis of purified PSII showed approximately one PG molecule per reaction center, presumably PG772, was lost in the PSII dimer from the T5A and S11A mutants compared with that in the PSII dimer from the control strain. In addition, protein analysis of monomer and dimer showed decreased levels of PsbV and PsbU extrinsic proteins in the PSII monomer purified from T5A and S11A mutants. These results suggest that site-directed mutagenesis of Thr-5 and Ser-11, which presumably causes the loss of PG772, induces quinone-dependent inhibition of PSII activity under high-intensity light conditions and destabilizes the binding of extrinsic proteins to PSII.

Consequences of structural modifications in cytochrome b559 on the electron acceptor side of Photosystem II

Cytb₅₅₉ in Photosystem II is a heterodimeric b-type cytochrome. The subunits, PsbE and PsbF, consist each in a membrane α-helix. Mutants were previously designed and studied in Thermosynechococcus elongatus (Sugiura et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 1847:276-285, 2015) either in which an axial histidine ligand of the haem-iron was substituted for a methionine, the PsbE/H23M mutant in which the haem was lacking, or in which the haem environment was modified, the PsbE/Y19F and PsbE/T26P mutants. All these mutants remained active showing that the haem has no structural role provided that PsbE and PsbF subunits are present. Here, we have carried on the characterization of these mutants. The following results were obtained: (i) the Y19F mutation hardly affect the E_m of Cytb₅₅₉, whereas the T26P mutation converts the haem into a form with a E_m much below 0 mV (so low that it is likely not reducible by Q_B^-) even in an active enzyme; (ii) in the PsbE/H23M mutant, and to a less extent in PsbE/T26P mutant, the electron transfer efficiency from Q_A^- to Q_B is decreased; (iii) the lower E_m of the Q_A/Q_A^- couple in the PsbE/H23M mutant correlates with a higher production of singlet oxygen; (iv) the superoxide and/or hydroperoxide formation was not increased in the PsbE/H23M mutant lacking the haem, whereas it was significantly larger in the PsbE/T26P. These data are discussed in view of the literature to discriminate between structural and redox roles for the haem of Cytb₅₅₉ in the production of reactive oxygen species.

New insights on ChlD1 function in Photosystem II from site-directed mutants of D1/T179 in Thermosynechococcus elongatus

The monomeric chlorophyll, Chl_D1, which is located between the P_D1P_D2 chlorophyll pair and the pheophytin, Pheo_D1, is the longest wavelength chlorophyll in the heart of Photosystem II and is thought to be the primary electron donor. Its central Mg²⁺ is liganded to a water molecule that is H-bonded to D1/T179. Here, two site-directed mutants, D1/T179H and D1/T179V, were made in the thermophilic cyanobacterium, Thermosynechococcus elongatus, and characterized by a range of biophysical techniques. The Mn₄CaO₅ cluster in the water-splitting site is fully active in both mutants. Changes in thermoluminescence indicate that i) radiative recombination occurs via the repopulation of *Chl_D1 itself; ii) non-radiative charge recombination reactions appeared to be faster in the T179H-PSII; and iii) the properties of P_D1P_D2 were unaffected by this mutation, and consequently iv) the immediate precursor state of the radiative excited state is the Chl_D1⁺Pheo_D1^- radical pair. Chlorophyll bleaching due to high intensity illumination correlated with the amount of ¹O₂ generated. Comparison of the bleaching spectra with the electrochromic shifts attributed to Chl_D1 upon Q_A^- formation, indicates that in the T179H-PSII and in the WT*3-PSII, the Chl_D1 itself is the chlorophyll that is first damaged by ¹O₂, whereas in the T179V-PSII a more red chlorophyll is damaged, the identity of which is discussed. Thus, Chl_D1 appears to be one of the primary damage site in recombination-mediated photoinhibition. Finally, changes in the absorption of Chl_D1 very likely contribute to the well-known electrochromic shifts observed at ~430 nm during the S-state cycle.

Analysis of the transformation effect in cytochrome b559 of photosystem II in terms of the model of the heme-quinone redox interaction

Transformation of three-component redox pattern of cytochrome (Cyt) b559 in PS II membrane fragments upon various treatments is manifested in decrease of the relative content (R) of the high potential (HP) redox form of Cyt b559 and concomitant increase in the fractions of the two lower potential forms. Redox titration of Cyt b559 in different types of PS II membrane preparations was performed and revealed that (1) alteration of redox titration curve of Cyt b559 upon treatment of a sample is not specific to the type of treatment; (2) each value of R_HP defines the individual shape of the redox titration curve; (3) population of Cyt b559 may exist in several stable forms with multicomponent redox pattern: three types of three-component redox pattern and one type of two-component redox pattern as well as in the form with a single E_m; (4) transformation of Cyt b559 proceeds as successive conversion between the stable forms with multicomponent redox pattern; (5) upon harsh treatments, Cyt b559 abruptly converts into the state with a single E_m which value is intermediate between the E_m values of the two lower potential forms. Analysis of the data using the model of Cyt b559-quinone redox interaction revealed that diminution of R_HP in a range from 80 to 10% reflects a shift in redox equilibrium between the heme group of Cyt b559 and the interacting quinone, due to a gradual decrease of 90 mV in E_m of the heme group at the virtually unchanged E_m of the quinone component.

'Photosystem II: the water splitting enzyme of photosynthesis and the origin of oxygen in our atmosphere'

About 3 billion years ago an enzyme emerged which would dramatically change the chemical composition of our planet and set in motion an unprecedented explosion in biological activity. This enzyme used solar energy to power the thermodynamically and chemically demanding reaction of water splitting. In so doing it provided biology with an unlimited supply of reducing equivalents needed to convert carbon dioxide into the organic molecules of life while at the same time produced oxygen to transform our planetary atmosphere from an anaerobic to an aerobic state. The enzyme which facilitates this reaction and therefore underpins virtually all life on our planet is known as Photosystem II (PSII). It is a pigment-binding, multisubunit protein complex embedded in the lipid environment of the thylakoid membranes of plants, algae and cyanobacteria. Today we have detailed understanding of the structure and functioning of this key and unique enzyme. The journey to this level of knowledge can be traced back to the discovery of oxygen itself in the 18th-century. Since then there has been a sequence of mile stone discoveries which makes a fascinating story, stretching over 200 years. But it is the last few years that have provided the level of detail necessary to reveal the chemistry of water oxidation and O-O bond formation. In particular, the crystal structure of the isolated PSII enzyme has been reported with ever increasing improvement in resolution. Thus the organisational and structural details of its many subunits and cofactors are now well understood. The water splitting site was revealed as a cluster of four Mn ions and a Ca ion surrounded by amino-acid side chains, of which seven provide direct ligands to the metals. The metal cluster is organised as a cubane structure composed of three Mn ions and a Ca2+ linked by oxo-bonds with the fourth Mn ion attached to the cubane. This structure has now been synthesised in a non-protein environment suggesting that it is a totally inorganic precursor for the evolution of the photosynthetic oxygen-evolving complex. In summary, the overall structure of the catalytic site has given a framework on which to build a mechanistic scheme for photosynthetic dioxygen generation and at the same time provide a blue-print and incentive to develop catalysts for artificial photo-electrochemical systems to split water and generate renewable solar fuels.

The PsbY protein of Arabidopsis Photosystem II is important for the redox control of cytochrome b559

Photosystem II is a protein complex embedded in the thylakoid membrane of photosynthetic organisms and performs the light driven water oxidation into electrons and molecular oxygen that initiate the photosynthetic process. This important complex is composed of more than two dozen of intrinsic and peripheral subunits, of those half are low molecular mass proteins. PsbY is one of those low molecular mass proteins; this 4.7-4.9kDa intrinsic protein seems not to bind any cofactors. Based on structural data from cyanobacterial and red algal Photosystem II PsbY is located closely or in direct contact with cytochrome b559. Cytb559 consists of two protein subunits (PsbE and PsbF) ligating a heme-group in-between them. While the exact function of this component in Photosystem II has not yet been clarified, a crucial role for assembly and photo-protection in prokaryotic complexes has been suggested. One unique feature of Cytb559 is its redox-heterogeneity, forming high, medium and low potential, however, neither origin nor mechanism are known. To reveal the function of PsbY within Photosystem II of Arabidopsis we have analysed PsbY knock-out plants and compared them to wild type and to complemented mutant lines. We show that in the absence of PsbY protein Cytb559 is only present in its oxidized, low potential form and plants depleted of PsbY were found to be more susceptible to photoinhibition.

New interpretation of the redox properties of cytochrome b559 in photosystem II

A model of heme-quinone redox interaction has been developed for cytochrome b559 in photosystem II. The quinone QC in the singly protonated form may function as an interacting quinone. The electrostatic effect between the charges on the heme iron of the cytochrome and QCH leads to appearance of three forms of the cytochrome with different redox potentials. A simple and effective mechanism of redox regulation of the electron transfer pathways in photosystem II is proposed.

Allocation of Heme Is Differentially Regulated by Ferrochelatase Isoforms in Arabidopsis Cells

Heme is involved in various biological processes as a cofactor of hemoproteins located in various organelles. In plant cells, heme is synthesized by two isoforms of plastid-localized ferrochelatase, FC1 and FC2. In this study, by characterizing Arabidopsis T-DNA insertional mutants, we showed that the allocation of heme is differentially regulated by ferrochelatase isoforms in plant cells. Analyses of weak (fc1-1) and null (fc1-2) mutants suggest that FC1-producing heme is required for initial growth of seedling development. In contrast, weak (fc2-1) and null (fc2-2) mutants of FC2 showed pale green leaves and retarded growth, indicating that FC2-producing heme is necessary for chloroplast development. During the initial growth stage, FC2 deficiency caused reduction of plastid cytochromes. In addition, although FC2 deficiency marginally affected the assembly of photosynthetic reaction center complexes, it caused relatively larger but insufficient light-harvesting antenna to reaction centers, resulting in lower efficiency of photosynthesis. In the later vegetative growth, however, fc2-2 recovered photosynthetic growth, showing that FC1-producing heme may complement the FC2 deficiency. On the other hand, reduced level of cytochromes in microsomal fraction was discovered in fc1-1, suggesting that FC1-producing heme is mainly allocated to extraplastidic organelles. Furthermore, the expression of FC1 is induced by the treatment of an elicitor flg22 while that of FC2 was reduced, and fc1-1 abolished the flg22-dependent induction of FC1 expression and peroxidase activity. Consequently, our results clarified that FC2 produces heme for the photosynthetic machinery in the chloroplast, while FC1 is the housekeeping enzyme providing heme cofactor to the entire cell. In addition, FC1 can partly complement FC2 deficiency and is also involved in defense against stressful conditions.

Dynamics of the Special Pair of Chlorophylls of Photosystem II

Cholophylls are at the basis of the photosynthetic energy conversion mechanisms in algae, plants, and cyanobacteria. In photosystem II, the photoproduced electrons leave a special pair of chlorophylls (namely, P(D1) and P(D2)) that becomes cationic. This oxidizing pair [P(D1),P(D2)](+), in turn, triggers a cascade of oxidative events, eventually leading to water splitting and oxygen evolution. In the present work, using quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations, we investigate the electronic structure and the dynamics of the P(D1)P(D2) special pair in both its oxidized and reduced states. In agreement with previously reported static calculations, the symmetry between the two chlorophylls was found to be broken, the positive charge being preferentially located on P(D1). Nevertheless, this study reveals for the first time that large charge fluctuations occur along dynamics, temporarily inverting the charge preference for the two branches. Finally, a vibrational analysis pinpointed that such charge fluctuations are strongly coupled to specific modes of the special pair.

Involvement of molecular oxygen in the donor-side photoinhibition of Mn-depleted photosystem II membranes

It has been shown by Khorobrykh et al. (Biochemistry (Moscow) 67:683-688, 2002); Yanykin et al. (Biochim Biophys Acta 1797:516-523, 2010); Khorobrykh et al. (Biochemistry 50:10658-10665, 2011) that Mn-depleted photosystem II (PSII) membrane fragments are characterized by an enhanced oxygen photoconsumption on the donor side of PSII which is accompanied with hydroperoxide formation and it was suggested that the events are related to the oxidative photoinhibition of PSII. Experimental confirmation of this suggestion is presented in this work. The degree of photoinhibition was determined by the loss of the capability of exogenous electron donors (Mn(2+) or sodium ascorbate) to the reactivation of electron transport [measured by the light-induced changes of chlorophyll fluorescence yield (∆F)] in Mn-depleted PSII membranes. The transition from anaerobic conditions to aerobic ones significantly activated photoinhibition of Mn-depleted PSII membranes both in the absence and in the presence of exogenous electron acceptor, ferricyanide. The photoinhibition of Mn-depleted PSII membranes was suppressed upon the addition of exogenous electron donors (Mn(2+), diphenylcarbazide, and ferrocyanide). The addition of superoxide dismutase did not affect the photoinhibition of Mn-depleted PSII membranes. It is concluded that the interaction of molecular oxygen (rather than superoxide anion radical formed on the acceptor side of PSII) with the oxidized components of the donor side of PSII reflects the involvement of O2 in the donor-side photoinhibition of Mn-depleted PSII membranes.

In vivo reconstitution of a homodimeric cytochrome b559 like structure: The role of the N-terminus α-subunit from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803

The cytochrome b559 is a heme-bridged heterodimeric protein with two subunits, α and β. Both subunits from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 have previously been cloned and overexpressed in Escherichia coli and in vivo reconstitution experiments have been carried out. The formation of homodimers in the bacterial membrane with endogenous heme was only observed in the case of the β-subunit (β/β) but not with the full length α-subunit. In the present work, reconstitution of a homodimer (α/α) cytochrome b559 like structure was possible using a chimeric N-terminus α-subunit truncated before the amino acid isoleucine 17, eliminating completely a short amphipathic α-helix that lays on the surface of the membrane. Overexpression and in vivo reconstitution in the bacteria was clearly demonstrated by the brownish color of the culture pellet and the use of a commercial monoclonal antibody against the fusion protein carrier, the maltoside binding protein, and polyclonal antibodies against a synthetic peptide of the α-subunit from Thermosynechococcus elongatus. Moreover, a simple partial purification after membrane solubilization with Triton X-100 confirmed that the overexpressed protein complex corresponded with the maltoside binding protein-chimeric α-subunit cytochrome b559 like structure. The features of the new structure were determined by UV-Vis, electron paramagnetic resonance and redox potentiometric techniques. Ribbon representations of all possible structures are also shown to better understand the mechanism of the cytochrome b559 maturation in the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane.

Comparison of the backbone dynamics of wild-type Hydrogenobacter thermophilus cytochrome c(552) and its b-type variant

Cytochrome c552 from the thermophilic bacterium Hydrogenobacter thermophilus is a typical c-type cytochrome which binds heme covalently via two thioether bonds between the two heme vinyl groups and two cysteine thiol groups in a CXXCH sequence motif. This protein was converted to a b-type cytochrome by substitution of the two cysteine residues by alanines (Tomlinson and Ferguson in Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:5156-5160, 2000a). To probe the significance of the covalent attachment of the heme in the c-type protein, (15)N relaxation and hydrogen exchange studies have been performed for the wild-type and b-type proteins. The two variants share very similar backbone dynamic properties, both proteins showing high (15)N order parameters in the four main helices, with reduced values in an exposed loop region (residues 18-21), and at the C-terminal residue Lys80. Some subtle changes in chemical shift and hydrogen exchange protection are seen between the wild-type and b-type variant proteins, not only for residues at and neighbouring the mutation sites, but also for some residues in the heme binding pocket. Overall, the results suggest that the main role of the covalent linkages between the heme group and the protein chain must be to increase the stability of the protein.

The Roles of Cytochrome b 559 in Assembly and Photoprotection of Photosystem II Revealed by Site-Directed Mutagenesis Studies

Cytochrome b 559 (Cyt b 559) is one of the essential components of the Photosystem II reaction center (PSII). Despite recent accomplishments in understanding the structure and function of PSII, the exact physiological function of Cyt b 559 remains unclear. Cyt b 559 is not involved in the primary electron transfer pathway in PSII but may participate in secondary electron transfer pathways that protect PSII against photoinhibition. Site-directed mutagenesis studies combined with spectroscopic and functional analysis have been used to characterize Cyt b 559 mutant strains and their mutant PSII complex in higher plants, green algae, and cyanobacteria. These integrated studies have provided important in vivo evidence for possible physiological roles of Cyt b 559 in the assembly and stability of PSII, protecting PSII against photoinhibition, and modulating photosynthetic light harvesting. This mini-review presents an overview of recent important progress in site-directed mutagenesis studies of Cyt b 559 and implications for revealing the physiological functions of Cyt b 559 in PSII.

Assembly of oxygen-evolving Photosystem II efficiently occurs with the apo-Cytb559 but the holo-Cytb559 accelerates the recovery of a functional enzyme upon photoinhibition

Cytb559 in Photosystem II is a heterodimeric b-type cytochrome. The subunits, PsbE and PsbF, consist each in a membrane α-helix. Roles for Cytb559 remain elusive. In Thermosynechococcus elongatus, taking advantage of the robustness of the PSII variant with PsbA3 as the D1 subunit (WT*3), 4 mutants were designed hoping to get mutants nevertheless the obligatory phototrophy of this cyanobacterium. In two of them, an axial histidine ligand of the haem-iron was substituted for either a methionine, PsbE/H23M, which could be potentially a ligand or for an alanine, PsbE/H23A, which cannot. In the other mutants, PsbE/Y19F and PsbE/T26P, the environment around PsbE/H23 was expected to be modified. From EPR, MALDI-TOF and O2 evolution activity measurements, the following results were obtained: Whereas the PsbE/H23M and PsbE/H23A mutants assemble only an apo-Cytb559 the steady-state level of active PSII was comparable to that in WT*3. The lack of the haem or, in PsbE/T26P, conversion of the high-potential into a lower potential form, slowed-down the recovery rate of the O2 activity after high-light illumination but did not affect the photoinhibition rate. This resulted in the following order for the steady-state level of active PSII centers under high-light conditions: PsbE/H23M≈PsbE/H23A<< PsbE/Y19F≤PsbE/T26P≤WT*3. These data show i) that the haem has no structural role provided that PsbE and PsbF are present, ii) a lack of correlation between the rate of photoinhibition and the Em of the haem and iii) that the holo-Cytb559 favors the recovery of a functional enzyme upon photoinhibition.

Protein film voltammetry and co-factor electron transfer dynamics in spinach photosystem II core complex

Direct protein film voltammetry (PFV) was used to investigate the redox properties of the photosystem II (PSII) core complex from spinach. The complex was isolated using an improved protocol not used previously for PFV. The PSII core complex had high oxygen-evolving capacity and was incorporated into thin lipid and polyion films. Three well-defined reversible pairs of reduction and oxidation voltammetry peaks were observed at 4 °C in the dark. Results were similar in both types of films, indicating that the environment of the PSII-bound cofactors was not influenced by film type. Based on comparison with various control samples including Mn-depleted PSII, peaks were assigned to chlorophyll a (Chl a) (Em = -0.47 V, all vs. NHE, at pH 6), quinones (-0.12 V), and the manganese (Mn) cluster (Em = 0.18 V). PFV of purified iron heme protein cytochrome b-559 (Cyt b-559), a component of PSII, gave a partly reversible peak pair at 0.004 V that did not have a potential similar to any peaks observed from the intact PSII core complex. The closest peak in PSII to 0.004 V is the 0.18 V peak that was found to be associated with a two-electron process, and thus is inconsistent with iron heme protein voltammetry. The -0.47 V peak had a peak potential and peak potential-pH dependence similar to that found for purified Chl a incorporated into DMPC films. The midpoint potentials reported here may differ to various extents from previously reported redox titration data due to the influence of electrode double-layer effects. Heterogeneous electron transfer (hET) rate constants were estimated by theoretical fitting and digital simulations for the -0.47 and 0.18 V peaks. Data for the Chl a peaks were best fit to a one-electron model, while the peak assigned to the Mn cluster was best fit by a two-electron/one-proton model.

Using site-directed mutagenesis to probe the role of the D2 carotenoid in the secondary electron-transfer pathway of photosystem II

Secondary electron transfer in photosystem II (PSII), which occurs when water oxidation is inhibited, involves redox-active carotenoids (Car), as well as chlorophylls (Chl), and cytochrome b 559 (Cyt b 559), and is believed to play a role in photoprotection. CarD2 may be the initial point of secondary electron transfer because it is the closest cofactor to both P680, the initial oxidant, and to Cyt b 559, the terminal secondary electron donor within PSII. In order to characterize the role of CarD2 and to determine the effects of perturbing CarD2 on both the electron-transfer events and on the identity of the redox-active cofactors, it is necessary to vary the properties of CarD2 selectively without affecting the ten other Car per PSII. To this end, site-directed mutations around the binding pocket of CarD2 (D2-G47W, D2-G47F, and D2-T50F) have been generated in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Characterization by near-IR and EPR spectroscopy provides the first experimental evidence that CarD2 is one of the redox-active carotenoids in PSII. There is a specific perturbation of the Car(∙+) near-IR spectrum in all three mutated PSII samples, allowing the assignment of the spectral signature of Car D2 (∙+) ; Car D2 (∙+) exhibits a near-IR peak at 980 nm and is the predominant secondary donor oxidized in a charge separation at low temperature in ferricyanide-treated wild-type PSII. The yield of secondary donor radicals is substantially decreased in PSII complexes isolated from each mutant. In addition, the kinetics of radical formation are altered in the mutated PSII samples. These results are consistent with oxidation of CarD2 being the initial step in secondary electron transfer. Furthermore, normal light levels during mutant cell growth perturb the shape of the Chl(∙+) near-IR absorption peak and generate a dark-stable radical observable in the EPR spectra, indicating a higher susceptibility to photodamage further linking the secondary electron-transfer pathway to photoprotection.

The role of the high potential form of the cytochrome b559: Study of Thermosynechococcus elongatus mutants

Cytochrome b559 is an essential component of the photosystem II reaction center in photosynthetic oxygen-evolving organisms, but its function still remains unclear. The use of photosystem II preparations from Thermosynechococcus elongatus of high integrity and activity allowed us to measure for the first time the influence of cytochrome b559 mutations on its midpoint redox potential and on the reduction of the cytochrome b559 by the plastoquinone pool (or QB). In this work, five mutants having a mutation in the α-subunit (I14A, I14S, R18S, I27A and I27T) and one in the β-subunit (F32Y) of cytochrome b559 have been investigated. All the mutations led to a destabilization of the high potential form of the cytochrome b559. The midpoint redox potential of the high potential form was significantly altered in the αR18S and αI27T mutant strains. The αR18S strain also showed a high sensitivity to photoinhibitory illumination and an altered oxidase activity. This was suggested by measurements of light induced oxidation and dark re-reduction of the cytochrome b559 showing that under conditions of a non-functional water oxidation system, once the cytochrome is oxidized by P680(+), the yield of its reduction by QB or the PQ pool was smaller and the kinetic slower in the αR18S mutant than in the wild-type strain. Thus, the extremely positive redox potential of the high potential form of cytochrome b559 could be necessary to ensure efficient oxidation of the PQ pool and to function as an electron reservoir replacing the water oxidation system when it is not operating.

Structural, functional and auxiliary proteins of photosystem II

Photosystem II (PSII) is the water-splitting enzyme complex of photosynthesis and consists of a large number of protein subunits. Most of these proteins have been structurally and functionally characterized, although there are differences between PSII of plants, algae and cyanobacteria. Here we catalogue all known PSII proteins giving a brief description, where possible of their genetic origin, physical properties, structural relationships and functions. We have also included details of auxiliary proteins known at present to be involved in the in vivo assembly, maintenance and turnover of PSII and which transiently bind to the reaction centre core complex. Finally, we briefly give details of the proteins which form the outer light-harvesting systems of PSII in different types of organisms.

Spectroscopic and functional characterization of cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC 6803 mutants on the cytoplasmic-side of cytochrome b559 in photosystem II

We performed spectroscopic and functional characterization on cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC6803 with mutations of charged residues of the cytoplasmic side of cytochrome (Cyt) b559 in photosystem II (PSII). All of the mutant cells grew photoautotrophically and assembled stable PSII. However, R7Eα, R17Eα and R17Lβ mutant cells grew significantly slower and were more susceptible to photoinhibition than wild-type cells. The adverse effects of the arginine mutations on the activity and the stability of PSII were in the following order (R17Lβ>R7Eα>R17Eα and R17Aα). All these arginine mutants exhibited normal period-four oscillation in oxygen yield. Thermoluminescence characteristics indicated a slight decrease in the stability of the S3QB(-)/S2QB(-) charge pairs in the R7Eα and R17Lβ mutant cells. R7Eα and R17Lβ PSII core complexes contained predominantly the low potential form of Cyt b559. EPR results indicated the displacement of one of the two axial ligands to the heme of Cyt b559 in R7Eα and R17Lβ mutant reaction centers. Our results demonstrate that the electrostatic interactions between these arginine residues and the heme propionates of Cyt b559 are important to the structure and redox properties of Cyt b559. In addition, the blue light-induced nonphotochemical quenching was significantly attenuated and its recovery was accelerated in the R7Lα and R17Lβ mutant cells. Furthermore, ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry results showed that the PQ pool was more reduced in the R7Eα and R17Lβ mutant cells than wild-type cells in the dark. Our data support a functional role of Cyt b559 in protection of PSII under photoinhibition conditions in vivo.

Biphasic reduction of cytochrome b559 by plastoquinol in photosystem II membrane fragments: evidence for two types of cytochrome b559/plastoquinone redox equilibria

In photosystem II membrane fragments with oxidized cytochrome (Cyt) b559 reduction of Cyt b559 by plastoquinol formed in the membrane pool under illumination and by exogenous decylplastoquinol added in the dark was studied. Reduction of oxidized Cyt b559 by plastoquinols proceeds biphasically comprising a fast component with a rate constant higher than (10s)(-1), named phase I, followed by a slower dark reaction with a rate constant of (2.7min)(-1) at pH6.5, termed phase II. The extents of both components of Cyt b559 reduction increased with increasing concentrations of the quinols, with that, maximally a half of oxidized Cyt b559 can be photoreduced or chemically reduced in phase I at pH6.5. The photosystem II herbicide dinoseb but not 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU) competed with the quinol reductant in phase I. The results reveal that the two components of the Cyt b559 redox reaction reflect two redox equilibria attaining in different time domains. One-electron redox equilibrium between oxidized Cyt b559 and the photosystem II-bound plastoquinol is established in phase I of Cyt b559 reduction. Phase II is attributed to equilibration of Cyt b559 redox forms with the quinone pool. The quinone site involved in phase I of Cyt b559 reduction is considered to be the site regulating the redox potential of Cyt b559 which can accommodate quinone, semiquinone and quinol forms. The properties of this site designated here as QD clearly suggest that it is distinct from the site QC found in the photosystem II crystal structure.

Electron transfer from Cyt b(559) and tyrosine-D to the S2 and S3 states of the water oxidizing complex in photosystem II at cryogenic temperatures

The Mn(4)CaO(5) cluster of photosystem II (PSII) catalyzes the oxidation of water to molecular oxygen through the light-driven redox S-cycle. The water oxidizing complex (WOC) forms a triad with Tyrosine(Z) and P(680), which mediates electrons from water towards the acceptor side of PSII. Under certain conditions two other redox-active components, Tyrosine(D) (Y(D)) and Cytochrome b(559) (Cyt b(559)) can also interact with the S-states. In the present work we investigate the electron transfer from Cyt b(559) and Y(D) to the S(2) and S(3) states at 195 K. First, Y(D)(•) and Cyt b(559) were chemically reduced. The S(2) and S(3) states were then achieved by application of one or two laser flashes, respectively, on samples stabilized in the S(1) state. EPR signals of the WOC (the S(2)-state multiline signal, ML-S(2)), Y(D)(•) and oxidized Cyt b(559) were simultaneously detected during a prolonged dark incubation at 195 K. During 163 days of incubation a large fraction of the S(2) population decayed to S(1) in the S(2) samples by following a single exponential decay. Differently, S(3) samples showed an initial increase in the ML-S(2) intensity (due to S(3) to S(2) conversion) and a subsequent slow decay due to S(2) to S(1) conversion. In both cases, only a minor oxidation of Y(D) was observed. In contrast, the signal intensity of the oxidized Cyt b(559) showed a two-fold increase in both the S(2) and S(3) samples. The electron donation from Cyt b(559) was much more efficient to the S(2) state than to the S(3) state.

Reconstitution, spectroscopy, and redox properties of the photosynthetic recombinant cytochrome b(559) from higher plants

A study of the in vitro reconstitution of sugar beet cytochrome b(559) of the photosystem II is described. Both α and β cytochrome subunits were first cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. In vitro reconstitution of this cytochrome was carried out with partially purified recombinant subunits from inclusion bodies. Reconstitution with commercial heme of both (αα) and (ββ) homodimers and (αβ) heterodimer was possible, the latter being more efficient. The absorption spectra of these reconstituted samples were similar to that of the native heterodimer cytochrome b(559) form. As shown by electron paramagnetic resonance and potentiometry, most of the reconstituted cytochrome corresponded to a low spin form with a midpoint redox potential +36 mV, similar to that from the native purified cytochrome b(559). Furthermore, during the expression of sugar beet and Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 cytochrome b(559) subunits, part of the protein subunits were incorporated into the host bacterial inner membrane, but only in the case of the β subunit from the cyanobacterium the formation of a cytochrome b(559)-like structure with the bacterial endogenous heme was observed. The reason for that surprising result is unknown. This in vivo formed (ββ) homodimer cytochrome b(559)-like structure showed similar absorption and electron paramagnetic resonance spectral properties as the native purified cytochrome b(559). A higher midpoint redox potential (+126 mV) was detected in the in vivo formed protein compared to the in vitro reconstituted form, most likely due to a more hydrophobic environment imposed by the lipid membrane surrounding the heme.

Probing the N-terminal sequence of spinach PsbO: evidence that essential threonine residues bind to different functional sites in eukaryotic photosystem II

The N-terminal ¹E-⁶L domain of the manganese-stabilizing protein (PsbO) from spinach prevents non-specific binding of the subunit to photosystem II (PSII) and deletions of the ¹E-⁷T or ¹E-¹⁵T sequences from the PsbO N-terminus reduce or impair, respectively, functional binding of PsbO to PSII (Popelkova et al., Biochemistry 42:6193-6200, 2003). The work presented here provides deeper insights into the interaction of PsbO with PSII. The data show that a single mutation, ¹⁵T → A in mature PsbO from spinach reduces the stoichiometry of its functional binding from two to one subunit per PSII and decreases reconstitution of activity to about 45 % of the wild-type control. Replacement of the ¹E-⁶L domain with ⁶M in the T15A PsbO mutant has no additional negative effect on recovery of O₂ evolution activity, but it significantly weakens both functional and nonspecific binding of the truncated mutant to PSII. These results suggest that the ¹⁵T side-chain by itself is essential for binding of one of two PsbO subunits to eukaryotic PSII and that specific PSII-binding sites for PsbO are distinguishable; one PSII-binding site does not require PsbO-¹⁵T and probably interacts with the other N-terminal domain of PsbO. Identity of the latter domain is revealed by a requirement for the presence of the ¹E-⁶L sequence that is shown here to be necessary for high-affinity binding of PsbO to PSII. When combined with previous results, the data presented here lead to a more detailed model for PsbO binding in eukaryotic PSII.

Back-reactions, short-circuits, leaks and other energy wasteful reactions in biological electron transfer: redox tuning to survive life in O(2)

The energy-converting redox enzymes perform productive reactions efficiently despite the involvement of high energy intermediates in their catalytic cycles. This is achieved by kinetic control: with forward reactions being faster than competing, energy-wasteful reactions. This requires appropriate cofactor spacing, driving forces and reorganizational energies. These features evolved in ancestral enzymes in a low O(2) environment. When O(2) appeared, energy-converting enzymes had to deal with its troublesome chemistry. Various protective mechanisms duly evolved that are not directly related to the enzymes' principal redox roles. These protective mechanisms involve fine-tuning of reduction potentials, switching of pathways and the use of short circuits, back-reactions and side-paths, all of which compromise efficiency. This energetic loss is worth it since it minimises damage from reactive derivatives of O(2) and thus gives the organism a better chance of survival. We examine photosynthetic reaction centres, bc(1) and b(6)f complexes from this view point. In particular, the evolution of the heterodimeric PSI from its homodimeric ancestors is explained as providing a protective back-reaction pathway. This "sacrifice-of-efficiency-for-protection" concept should be generally applicable to bioenergetic enzymes in aerobic environments.

Structure and Function of Photosynthetic Reaction Centres

Extensive biochemical, biophysical, molecular biological and structural studies on a wide range of prokaryotic and eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms has revealed common features of their reaction centres where light induced charge separation and stabilization occurs. There is little doubt that all reaction centres have evolved from a common ancestor and have been optimized to maximum efficiency. As such they provide principles that can be used as a blueprint for developing artificial photo-electrochemical catalytic systems to generate solar fuels. This chapter summarises the common features of the organization of cofactors, electron transfer pathways and protein environments of reaction centres of anoxygenic and oxygenic phototrophs. In particular, the latest molecular details derived from X-ray crystallography are discussed in context of the specific catalytic functions of the Type I and Type II reaction centres.

Photosystem II component lifetimes in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803: small Cab-like proteins stabilize biosynthesis intermediates and affect early steps in chlorophyll synthesis

To gain insight in the lifetimes of photosystem II (PSII) chlorophyll and proteins, a combined stable isotope labeling (15N)/mass spectrometry method was used to follow both old and new pigments and proteins. Photosystem I-less Synechocystis cells were grown to exponential or post-exponential phase and then diluted in BG-11 medium with [15N]ammonium and [15N]nitrate. PSII was isolated, and the masses of PSII protein fragments and chlorophyll were determined. Lifetimes of PSII components ranged from 1.5 to 40 h, implying that at least some of the proteins and chlorophyll turned over independently from each other. Also, a significant amount of nascent PSII components accumulated in thylakoids when cells were in post-exponential growth phase. In a mutant lacking small Cab-like proteins (SCPs), most PSII protein lifetimes were unaffected, but the lifetime of chlorophyll and the amount of nascent PSII components that accumulated were decreased. In the absence of SCPs, one of the PSII biosynthesis intermediates, the monomeric PSII complex without CP43, was missing. Therefore, SCPs may stabilize nascent PSII protein complexes. Moreover, upon SCP deletion, the rate of chlorophyll synthesis and the accumulation of early tetrapyrrole precursors were drastically reduced. When [14N]aminolevulinic acid (ALA) was supplemented to 15N-BG-11 cultures, the mutant lacking SCPs incorporated much more exogenous ALA into chlorophyll than the control demonstrating that ALA biosynthesis was impaired in the absence of SCPs. This illustrates the major effects that nonstoichiometric PSII components such as SCPs have on intermediates and assembly but not on the lifetime of PSII proteins.