Annelid epithelia as models for electrogenic Na+ transport

Spiralian Genomes Reveal Gene Family Expansions Associated with Adaptation to Freshwater

The colonization of freshwater habitats by marine-adapted organisms represents a major transition that has only occurred a few times in the evolution of animals. Only around half of the extant animal phyla have representatives in both marine and freshwater environments and even within those phyla some major clades are restricted to marine environments. Moving from marine to freshwater environments can create severe osmotic and ionic stresses and the mechanisms that animals have used to adapt to those stresses are still not well understood. In this study, we downloaded amino acid sequence data from 11 spiralian animal genomes (four freshwater taxa representing four different phyla as well as 7 marine taxa) and identified a number of gene family expansions that have occurred exclusively in the freshwater lineages. Further investigation of these gene families and the timing and nature of their expansions will illuminate one of the major evolutionary transitions in the history of life on Earth.

Localization and characterization of sulfated glycosaminoglycans in the body of the earthworm Eisenia andrei (Oligochaeta, Annelida)

The aim of this study was to characterize the compartmental distribution of sulfated glycosaminoglycans (S-GAGs) in adults and their occurrence during the development of the earthworm Eisenia andrei. S-GAGs were extracted from the body of earthworms to identify their composition and the time of their appearance and disappearance in embryonic, newborn, juvenile, and adult earthworms. S-GAGs were also analyzed in earthworm tissue using histochemical metachromatic staining. Purified S-GAGs obtained from the whole body of adult earthworms were composed of chondroitin sulfate (CS) and heparan sulfate (HS). In addition, an unknown, highly sulfated polysaccharide (HSP) was detected. In order to characterize specifically the S-GAG composition in the integument, earthworms were dissected and as much as possible of their viscera was removed. HS and CS were the predominant sulfated polysaccharides in the dissected integument, whereas in viscera, CS, HS and the HSP were found in proportions similar to those identified in the body. The qualitative S-GAG composition in juveniles was similar to that obtained from adult earthworms. CS was the predominant S-GAG in newborn earthworms, accompanied by lesser amounts of HS and by tiny amounts of the HSP. This study provides a detailed descriptive account of the pattern of S-GAG synthesis during development, and also the characterization of the tissue distribution of these compounds in the body of earthworms.

Amiloride-sensitive sodium absorption is different in vertebrates and invertebrates

Amiloride-sensitive Na+absorption is a well-described feature of numerous transporting epithelia in vertebrates. Yet, very little is known about this important physiological process regarding invertebrates. In the present paper, we compare vertebrate Na+absorption mediated by the amiloride-sensitive epithelial Na+channel (ENaC) and its invertebrate counterpart. We used the dorsal skin of the annelid Hirudo medicinalis as a model for the Na+absorption of invertebrate epithelia. In applying electrophysiological, molecular, and biochemical techniques we found striking functional and structural differences between vertebrate and invertebrate amiloride-sensitive Na+absorption. Using modified Ussing chambers, we analyzed the influence of different known blockers and effectors of vertebrate ENaC on leech epithelial Na+absorption. We demonstrate that the serine protease trypsin had no effect on the Na+transport across leech integument, while it strongly activates vertebrate ENaC. While protons, and the divalent cations Ni2+and Zn2+stimulate vertebrate ENaC, amiloride-sensitive Na+currents in leech integument were substantially reduced. For molecular studies, we constructed a cDNA library of Hirudo medicinalis and screened it with specific ENaC antibodies. We performed numerous PCR approaches using a vast number of different degenerated and specific ENaC primers to identify ENaC-like structures. Yet, both strategies did not reveal any ENaC-like sequence in leech integument. From these data we conclude that amiloride-sensitive Na+absorption in leech skin is not mediated by an ENaC-like Na+channel but by a still unknown invertebrate member of the ENaC/DEG family that we termed lENaTP (leech epithelial Na+transporting protein).

Transport of sodium and chloride across earthworm skin in vitro

We present a new invertebrate model for the study of epithelial sodium transport in tight epithelia, the earthworm integument. Dissected segments of earthworm integument were mounted in modified Ussing chambers and perfused with either pond water (PW) or earthworm ringer solution (ERS) on the apical side. In order to investigate ion transport under near-in vivo physiological conditions, measurements were performed under current-clamp conditions by monitoring the transepithelial potential (V (T)), as well as the transepithelial resistance (R (T)). These were recorded continuously and the virtual short circuit current (I (SC)) was calculated. The integument has a high transepithelial resistance (R (T) = 9,037 +/- 502 Omega cm(2) for PW, n = 24, and 11,055 +/- 1,320 Omega cm(2) for ERS, n = 32). V (T) was -3.7 +/- 2.2 mV for PW (n = 24) and -1.5 +/- 1.0 mV for ERS (n = 32), and I (SC) was -0.57 +/- 0.30 microA/cm(2) for PW (n = 24) and -0.44 +/- 0.24 microA/cm(2) for ERS (n = 32). Only under PW, but not under ERS conditions, was there a pronounced inhibition of I (SC) by low doses of amiloride or its analogues phenamil and benzamil. The resistance of the paracellular pathway was found to be very high. The terrestrial oligochaete Lumbricus seems especially adapted to the environmental conditions because it has an ultra-tight integument and a very fast up- and down-regulation of apical Na(+) channels.