Issues on functional analysis in behavioral assessment

No "Top of the triangle kids": Toward conceptual clarity of students, behavior, and tiers in MTSS to advance social justice

Schools have increasingly adopted multitier systems of support to address a variety of educational aims. Despite their grounding in behavioral science and the public health model of prevention, in many settings there has been a shift from a foundational focus on behavioral principles to emphasize categorization and treatment of "top of the triangle" or "Tier 3" students. Herein, we first discuss how such emphasis on situating individuals, rather than behaviors, within the continuum of supports is counter to the principles and goals of MTSS, as well as undermining efforts to support prevention and social justice. Next, we apply a critical lens to review the related literature on problem-solving, labeling, marginalization of disabled students, and discipline disparities to provide a rationale for equity-centered MTSS with corresponding recommendations for practice.

Evidence From Children with Autism that Derived Relational Responding is a Generalized Operant

We conducted an empirical examination of derived relational responding as a generalized operant and concurrently evaluated the validity and efficacy of program items contained in the Promoting the Emergence of Advanced Knowledge - Equivalence (PEAK-E) curriculum. A first study utilized a multiple-baseline across-skills experimental arrangement to determine the efficacy of equivalence-based instruction guided by PEAK-E, replicated across 11 children with autism. A total of 33 individualized skills were taught, and the subsequent emergence of untrained relations was tested throughout the investigation. The mastery criterion was achieved for 29 of the 33 instructional targets. Additionally, for 3 participants, results were again replicated with a novel set of stimuli. A second study evaluated the degree to which multiple-exemplar equivalence-based instruction led to the emergence of derived relational responding as a generalized operant. The organized nature of the PEAK curriculum allowed the impact on derived relational responding to be compared to that produced by earlier PEAK models that are focused on the direct training of traditional verbal operants. PEAK-E instruction was introduced in a multiple-baseline design across two participants, with a third staying in a training baseline throughout. Increases in derived relational responding using novel, untrained stimuli were only observed when multiple-exemplar equivalence-based instruction was introduced. Taken together, these results provide support for derived relational responding as a generalized operant and demonstrate the utility of conducting larger scale evaluations of higher order behavioral phenomena in single-case experimental arrangements.

Illustrating the Applicability of IRT to Implementation Science: Examining an Instrument of Therapist Attitudes

Pragmatic instruments with psychometric support are important to advance dissemination and implementation (D&I) research, but few well-researched D&I instruments exist. Item response theory (IRT), an approach that is underutilized in D&I, can help with the development of actionable and brief instruments. This paper provides an overview of IRT for D&I researchers and examines an instrument of therapist attitudes using IRT measurement models. Eight items of the Attitudes Towards Individualized Assessment-Monitoring and Feedback (AIA-MF) Clinical Utility scale were fit to the Graded Response Model in a national sample of master's level therapists. Various IRT model characteristics including item threshold and discrimination parameters, information, and item and person fit were examined. Discrimination and thresholds parameters showed significant variability across the eight items. Item information curves also showed that each item contributed variably to the total test information, suggesting that items 4 and 5 reliably measure therapist attitudes across the latent continuum and items 3 and 6 warrant further investigation. Results suggest that IRT models can help D&I researchers examine existing instruments with greater specificity than traditional measurement methods, thus increasing measurement precision while lowering response burden, both important considerations for the field.

Measures of behavioral function predict duration of video game play: Utilization of the Video Game Functional Assessment - Revised

Background Internet gaming disorder (IGD) was introduced in the DSM-5 as a way of identifying and diagnosing problematic video game play. However, the use of the diagnosis is constrained, as it shares criteria with other addictive orders (e.g., pathological gambling). Aims Further work is required to better understand IGD. One potential avenue of investigation is IGD's relationship to the primary reinforcing behavioral functions. This study explores the relationship between duration of video game play and the reinforcing behavioral functions that may motivate or maintain video gaming. Methods A total of 499 video game players began the online survey, with complete data from 453 participants (85% white and 28% female), were analyzed. Individuals were placed into five groups based on self-reported hours of video gaming per week, and completed the Video Game Functional Assessment - Revised (VGFA-R). Results The results demonstrated the escape and social attention function were significant in predicting duration of video game play, whereas sensory and tangible were not significant. Conclusion Future implications of the VGFA-R and behaviorally based research are discussed.

PSYCHOHYGIENIC ASPECTS OF TRAINING OF DISABLED ADOLESCENTS WITH PATHOLOGY OF THE VISION

The objective of this article is to undertake a literature review to familiarize ourselves with the knowledge base; to summarize information about some psycho-hygienic aspects of teaching and visually impaired adolescents, including features of communication, learning environment, psycho-emotional stress in specialized educational institutions, as well as individual psychological characteristics of personality, emotional and volitional state of visually impaired and general patterns of physiological and psychological characteristics and health of adolescents with vision pathology. To examine the system of security measures in order to optimize the learning environment for the promotion of mental health of the studied contingent and the nature and impact of the learning environment on functional status and health of adolescents with vision pathology. To investigate the impact of current patterns of complex sanitary and regime-organizational factors of training on functional status and health of adolescents with vision pathology. A thorough literature review helps to lay the foundation for a study, and can inspires new research ideas.

The Validity of Functional Behavioral Assessment with Students of Average Intellectual Ability

In the United States, functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is a new requirement of the 1997 Amendments to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act for students who exhibit challenging behavior. FBA has been extensively studied with persons with severe and profound intellectual disabilities within clinical settings. However, there is limited research with students with average intellectual ability in public education settings. This article reviews seven pertinent validity indices associated with FBA: external validity, content validity, convergent validity, criterion validity, treatment validity, social validity, and habilitative validity. In short, much research is needed to inform practitioners about conducting valid FBAwith students with average intellectual ability.

“But I'm Not Really Bad”: Using an Ideographic Versus a Nomothetic Approach to Understand the Reasons for Difficult Behaviour in Children

The number of students who are identified as experiencing behavioural difficulties in the mainstream school setting is growing. However, current efforts by teachers to address these behavioural difficulties are seriously limited because of lack of training in the procedures for assessing and working with difficult behaviour. This paper will argue that the apparent failure of traditional “behaviour modification” in producing positive changes in difficult behaviour lies in its prescriptive application of general strategies to specific student problems. This approach to behaviour change is ineffective because it is not based on an understanding of the reasons for difficult behaviour. The functional assessment framework for investigating and understanding student difficulties will be presented as a more efficient means of changing the behaviour problems that occur in the classroom. At the foundation of this framework is the assumption that meaningful and long-term changes to difficult behaviour can only result from teaching the student to behave differently rather than focusing on the elimination of problem behaviour.

Development and initial validation of the Influences on Patient Safety Behaviours Questionnaire

BACKGROUND

Understanding the factors that make it more or less likely that healthcare practitioners (HCPs) will perform certain patient safety behaviors is important in developing effective intervention strategies. A questionnaire to identify determinants of HCP patient safety behaviors does not currently exist. This study reports the development and initial validation of the Influences on Patient Safety Behaviors Questionnaire (IPSBQ) based on the Theoretical Domains Framework.

METHODS

Two hundred and thirty-three HCPs from three acute National Health Service Hospital Trusts in the United Kingdom completed the 34-item measure focusing on one specific patient safety behavior (using pH as the first line method for checking the position of a nasogastric tube). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was undertaken to generate the model of best fit.

RESULTS

The final questionnaire consisted of 11 factors and 23 items, and CFA produced a reasonable fit: χ² (175) = 345.7, p < 0.001; CMIN/DF = 1.98; GFI = 0.90 and RMSEA = 0.06, as well as adequate levels of discriminant validity, and internal consistency (r = 0.21 to 0.64).

CONCLUSIONS

A reliable and valid theoretically underpinned measure of determinants of HCP patient safety behavior has been developed. The criterion validity of the measure is still unknown and further work is necessary to confirm the reliability and validity of this measure for other patient safety behaviors.

Therapists' Verbal Behavior Analysis: A Descriptive Approach to the Psychotherapeutic Phenomenon

This paper presents some preliminary results from a different approach to research on psychotherapeutic processes. As activity in psychotherapy is predominantly verbal, we propose a scientific study of therapists' verbal behavior from a behaviorist perspective. Data were obtained through observational analysis of the recordings of 16 clinical sessions involving 4 cases, all of which based on individual cognitive-behavioral therapy with adults, in the framework of private clinical practice in Spain. The analysis used a previously validated system of categories andThe Observer XTsoftware to register and code data. A descriptive analysis enabled us to identify several patterns of psychologists' verbal behavior, irrespective of the therapist and/or the case analyzed. Notable differences were also observed in clinicians' performance, which raises important questions about potential variables associated with therapeutic change. Finally, we discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the present research agenda, the development of which should lead to a fuller understanding of the psychotherapeutic phenomenon.

Limitations of Functional Analysis: The Case for Including Valued Outcomes Analysis in the Investigation of Difficult Behaviour

Effective behaviour change is based on understanding the reasons for difficult behaviour. However, current functional analytic technology is often limited in its effectiveness in the clinical setting because the focus is on labelling and classifying behavioural outcomes rather than conducting a detailed analysis of the manner in which these outcomes assist the client to operate in the environment. The effectiveness of existing functional analytic techniques might be enhanced by moving the focus of the investigation from identifying the consequent variables that impact on behaviour to systematically exploring client–environment interactions as well as the manner in which the client experiences the consequences of his/her actions. One potential method (Valued Outcomes Analysis) that provides a framework for the systematic investigation of the effects of ‘inner skin’ factors on the incidence of behavioural difficulties is described here.

Functional Analysis of Intermittently Reinforced Behaviour: A Case Study

Functional analysis is used to identify potential reinforcers by generating hypotheses about possible functions of a behaviour. Current methods of functional analysis emphasise observations of events, especially consequences, that occur in the immediate environment of the behaviour. While these methods are well suited for assessing behaviour that is reinforced frequently, they are less appropriate for assessing behaviour that is reinforced only intermittently. A new method for conducting functional analysis is presented that is designed to assess intermittently reinforced behaviour. The new method is illustrated using data that were gathered from an extension of a standard problem-solving format. Data are interpreted using the principle of revealed preference that arose from behavioural economics. The revealed preference method is illustrated using information provided by a client with a dependent personality disorder.

The Concept of Reliability in the Context of Observational Assessments

Occupational therapists are interested in clients' performance of activities of daily living in real-life contexts. To maximize the validity of inferences made from assessments, occupational therapists conduct observations in everyday environments: at home, school, and work and in the community. Although these observations in context are arguably more valid, they are potentially less controlled, which affects the reliability of the data obtained. Occupational therapists may wonder about the evidence of reliability when evaluating observational assessments for use or question reliability considerations in developing protocols. This article explores the concept of reliability in the context of observational assessments. We compare two theoretical approaches to reliability; apply the theory to the example of occupational performance, as viewed by occupational therapists; and argue the relevance of internal consistency, observer (rater) reliability, and sample reliability. Finally, the authors examine in-depth factors influencing the sample reliability of observational assessment scores, weighed against the utility of assessments and generalizability of scores.

Forms and functions of school refusal behavior in youth: an empirical analysis of absenteeism severity

BACKGROUND

School refusal behavior is a particularly nettlesome problem for mental health and education professionals because of its symptom severity and heterogeneity as well as lack of consensus regarding inclusive classification strategies. Alternatively, a functional model of school refusal behavior may provide a particularly useful way of organizing, assessing, and treating this population.

METHOD

The present study included 222 youths aged 5-17 years (134 males, 88 females) with school refusal behavior and their parents. Participants were assessed at a specialized university-based clinic for youths with school refusal behavior. Child self-report and parent-based measures of forms of behavior related to school refusal as well as functions of school refusal behavior were employed.

RESULTS

Hierarchical regression analysis and structural equation modeling revealed that function was a better determinant of degree of school absenteeism than behavior form.

CONCLUSIONS

Assessing the function of school refusal behavior is likely a key factor in the evaluation of this population and may be linked to informed decisions about choice of treatment.

Treatment utility of psychological assessment

This article focuses on treatment utility. A definition of treatment utility was provided by S. C. Hayes, R. O. Nelson, and R. B. Jarrett (1987): "We propose to use the phrase the treatment utility of assessment to refer to the degree to which assessment is shown to contribute to beneficial treatment outcome" (p. 963). Various methodologies to examine the treatment utility of assessment are summarized. Treatment utility studies using various assessment procedures (i.e., diagnosis and functional analysis) and various disorders (i.e., unipolar depression, social or interpersonal problems, and phobic disorders) are described. Suggestions are made as to when elaborated assessment and/or treatment utility studies are needed. Limitations on the generalizability of results of any particular treatment utility study are presented. Despite progress, for most assessment procedures and devices, the treatment utility question remains; What is the degree to which assessment is shown to contribute to beneficial treatment outcome?

Changing clinical behaviour by making guidelines specific

Efforts to get doctors to follow guidelines have overlooked the importance of clear and concise recommendations

Functional analysis of self-injurious behavior in an adult with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome

A three-phase functional analysis was conducted to discover controlling variables of self-injury in a 28-year-old individual with Lesch-Nyhan syndrome. Experimental verification followed information-gathering and interpretive phases. Self-injurious responses were blocked to prevent harm to the participant; therefore, responses measured were precursors to self-injury. A multielement experimental design included four assessment conditions: social attention contingent on precursory behavior, attention contingent on behavior incompatible with precursory behavior, continuous attention and minimal attention. Highest rates of precursory behavior occurred during continuous attention and when incompatible behavior was reinforced. Social attention appeared to act as a discriminative stimulus for self-injurious behavior in this participant.

Reaffirming The Importance Of “Analysis” In Applied Behavior Analysis: A Review Of A. C. Repp And R. H. Horner’s Edited Book, Functional Analysis Of Problem Behavior: From Effective Assessment To Effective Support

In recent years, much has been written about the topics of functional assessment and functional analysis in applied settings. In their book, Functional Analysis of Problem Behavior: From Effective Assessment to Effective Support, Repp and Horner (1999) have compiled a series of essays from experts on the topic. In this article, we review their work and comment on each chapter's contribution to the relevant literature. We conclude that the book meets its primary goals of expanding our view of functional analysis as well as providing those new to the field with a stronger understanding of the topic. We do, however, note some concerns with inconsistent use of functional analysis terminology and a lack of practical guidance regarding its implementation in applied settings, but we believe these limitations are inherent in the empirical literature and are not unique to this book. Thus, we strongly endorse this book as “must reading” for behaviorally oriented researchers, students, and practitioners.

Behavioral assessment: review and prospect

In this article I review the history and publication trends of the behavioral assessment (BA) section of the journal, outline future directions for the BA section and suggest avenues for future assessment research. BA began as a stand-alone journal in 1978 and was incorporated as a regular section of Behaviour Research and Therapy (BRT) in 1992. Throughout this article I will use 'BA' to refer to both the stand-alone assessment journal and the assessment section of BRT. Since its inception, the scope of BA has been broad, with behavioral assessment defined to include the assessment of motoric, cognitive, emotional and physiological responses. Several publication trends are identified, including a declining frequency in the number of submitted and published articles on behavioural assessment. This parallels the declining number of assessment articles published elsewhere. Despite these trends, assessment research continues to form a vital foundation for other types of psychological research (e.g. treatment outcome studies), and there is a continued need for assessment-related research. A number of potentially fruitful directions for assessment research are suggested.

Experimental functional analyses for challenging behavior: a study of validity and reliability

The convergent validity of an experimental (analog) functional analysis was investigated by a comparison of three separate ways of interpreting the data derived from such an assessment: two previously published methods and the criterion Z method derived by the authors. Data from the experimental functional analysis of the challenging behavior(s) of 27 individuals with intellectual disabilities were analyzed to assess agreement between the three forms of interpretation. The test-retest reliability of all three methods over periods of 2 weeks, 1 month, and 3 months was also calculated. The results suggest that the methods of interpreting function from experimental assessments can give different results and that the test-retest reliability of the experimental functional analyses is poor. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to clinical practice.