Roles of lysine 219 and 255 residues in tobacco acetolactate synthase

Engineering Herbicide-Tolerance Rice Expressing an Acetohydroxyacid Synthase with a Single Amino Acid Deletion

The acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) is an essential enzyme involved in branched amino acids. Several herbicides wither weeds via inhibiting AHAS activity, and the AHAS mutants show tolerance to these herbicides. However, most AHAS mutations are residue substitutions but not residue deletion. Here, residue deletion was used to engineering the AHAS gene and herbicide-tolerant rice. Molecular docking analysis predicted that the W548 of the AHAS was a residue deletion to generate herbicide tolerance. The AHAS-ΔW548 protein was generated in vitro to remove the W548 residue. Interestingly, the deletion led to the tetramer dissociation of the AHAS, while this dissociation did not reduce the activity of the AHAS. Moreover, the W548 deletion contributed to multi-family herbicides tolerance. Specially, it conferred more tolerance to sulfometuron-methyl and bispyribac-sodium than the W548L substitution. Further analysis revealed that AHAS-ΔW548 had the best performance on the sulfometuron-methyl tolerance compared to the wild-type control. Over-expression of the AHAS-ΔW548 gene into rice led to the tolerance of multiple herbicides in the transgenic line. The T-DNA insertion and the herbicide treatment did not affect the agronomic traits and yields, while more branched-chain amino acids were detected in transgenic rice seeds. Residue deletion of W548 in the AHAS could be a useful strategy for engineering herbicide tolerant rice. The increase of branched-chain amino acids might improve the umami tastes of the rice.

Characterization of an acetohydroxy acid synthase mutant conferring tolerance to imidazolinone herbicides in rice (Oryza sativa)

The acetohydroxy acid synthase S627N mutation confers herbicide tolerance in rice, and the rice variety containing this mutation produces good yields. This variety is commercially viable at Shanghai and Jiangsu regions in China. Weedy rice is a type of rice that produces lower yields and poorer quality grains than cultivated rice. It plagues commercial rice fields in many countries. One strategy to control its proliferation is to develop rice varieties that are tolerant to specific herbicides. Acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) mutations have been found to confer herbicide tolerance to rice. Here, we identified a single mutation (S627N) in AHAS from an indica rice variety that conferred tolerance against imidazolinone herbicides, including imazethapyr and imazamox. A japonica rice variety (JD164) was developed to obtain herbicide tolerance by introducing the mutated indica ahas gene. Imidazolinone application was sufficient to efficiently control weedy rice in the JD164 field. Although the imazethapyr treatment caused dwarfing in the JD164 plants, it did not significantly reduce yields. To determine whether the decrease of the ahas mRNA expression caused the dwarfism of JD164 after imazethapyr application, we detected the ahas mRNA level in plants. The abundance of the ahas mRNA in JD164 increased after imidazolinone application, thus excluding the mRNA expression level as a possible cause of dwarfism. Activity assays showed that the mutated AHAS was tolerant to imidazolinone but the catalytic efficiency of the mutated AHAS decreased in its presence. Moreover, the activity of the mutated AHAS decreased more in the presence of imazethapyr than in the presence of imazamox. We observed no difference in the AHAS secondary structures, but homology modeling suggested that the S627N mutation enabled the substrate to access the active site channel in AHAS, resulting in imidazolinone tolerance. Our work combined herbicides with a rice variety to control weedy rice and showed the mechanism of herbicide tolerance in this rice variety.

Expression, characterization, and site-directed mutation of a multiple herbicide-resistant acetohydroxyacid synthase (rAHAS) from Pseudomonas sp. Lm10

A multiple herbicide-resistant acetohydroxyacid synthase (rAHAS) gene was cloned from Pseudomonas sp. Lm10. Sequence analysis showed that the rAHAS regulatory subunit was identical to that of Pseudomonas putida KT2440 (sensitive AHAS, sAHAS), whereas six different sites [H134→N (rAHAS→sAHAS), A135→P, S136→T, I210→V, F264→Y, and S486→W] were found in the catalytic subunit. The rAHAS and sAHAS were over expressed, purified and characterized. rAHAS showed higher resistance to four kinds of AHAS-inhibitor herbicides than sAHAS. The resistance factor of rAHAS was 56.0-fold, 12.6-fold, 6.5-fold, and 9.2-fold as compared with sAHAS when metsulfuron-methyl, imazethapyr, flumetsulam, and pyriminobac-methyl used as inhibitor, respectively. The specific activity of rAHAS was lower than that of sAHAS and the K (m) value of rAHAS for pyruvate was approximately onefold higher than the corresponding value for sAHAS. Data from site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated that alteration at A135, F264, and S486 resulted in resistance reduction, while the mutation at H134, S136, and I210 has little effect on the resistance. A135 was mainly responsible for resistance to imidazolinone; F264 conferred resistance to sulfonylurea and triazolopyrimidine sulfonamide; and S486 showed multiple herbicides resistance to the four herbicides.

Structural and functional evaluation of three well-conserved serine residues in tobacco acetohydroxyacid synthase

The first step in the common pathway for the biosynthesis of branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) is catalyzed by acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS). The roles of three well-conserved serine residues (S167, S506, and S539) in tobacco AHAS were determined using site-directed mutagenesis. The mutations S167F and S506F were found to be inactive and abolished the binding affinity for cofactor FAD. The Far-UV CD spectrum of the inactive mutants was similar to that of wild-type enzyme, indicating no major conformational changes in the secondary structure. However, the active mutants, S167R, S506A, S506R, S539A, S539F and S539R, showed lower specific activities. Further, a homology model of tobacco AHAS was generated based on the crystal structure of yeast AHAS. In the model, the S167 and S506 residues were identified near the FAD binding site, while the S539 residue was found to near the ThDP binding site. The S539 mutants, S539A and S539R, showed strong resistance to three classes of herbicides, NC-311 (a sulfonylurea), Cadre (an imidazolinone), and TP (a triazolopyrimidine). In contrast, the active S167 and S506 mutants did not show any significant resistance to the herbicides, with the exception of S506R, which showed strong resistance to all herbicides. Thus, our results suggest that the S167 and S506 residues are essential for catalytic activity by playing a role in the FAD binding site. The S539 residue was found to be near the ThDP with an essential role in the catalytic activity and specific mutants of this residue (S539A and S539R) showed strong herbicide resistance as well.

Structure and mechanism of inhibition of plant acetohydroxyacid synthase

Plants and microorganisms synthesize valine, leucine and isoleucine via a common pathway in which the first reaction is catalysed by acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS, EC 2.2.1.6). This enzyme is of substantial importance because it is the target of several herbicides, including all members of the popular sulfonylurea and imidazolinone families. However, the emergence of resistant weeds due to mutations that interfere with the inhibition of AHAS is now a worldwide problem. Here we summarize recent ideas on the way in which these herbicides inhibit the enzyme, based on the 3D structure of Arabidopsis thaliana AHAS. This structure also reveals important clues for understanding how various mutations can lead to herbicide resistance.

Acetohydroxyacid synthase and its role in the biosynthetic pathway for branched-chain amino acids

The branched-chain amino acids are synthesized by plants, fungi and microorganisms, but not by animals. Therefore, the enzymes of this pathway are potential target sites for the development of antifungal agents, antimicrobials and herbicides. Most research has focused upon the first enzyme in this biosynthetic pathway, acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) largely because it is the target site for many commercial herbicides. In this review we provide a brief overview of the important properties of each enzyme within the pathway and a detailed summary of the most recent AHAS research, against the perspective of work that has been carried out over the past 50 years.

Roles of three well-conserved arginine residues in mediating the catalytic activity of tobacco acetohydroxy acid synthase

Acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS, EC 2.2.1.6; also known as acetolactate synthase, ALS) catalyzes the first common step in the biosynthesis of valine, leucine, and isoleucine in plants and microorganisms. AHAS is the target of several classes of herbicides. In the present study, the role of three well-conserved arginine residues (R141, R372, and R376) in tobacco AHAS was determined by site-directed mutagenesis. The mutated enzymes, referred to as R141A, R141F, and R376F, were inactive and unable to bind to the cofactor, FAD. The inactive mutants had the same secondary structure as that of the wild type. The mutants R141K, R372F, and R376K exhibited much lower specific activities than the wild type, and moderate resistance to herbicides such as Londax, Cadre, and/or TP. The mutation R141K showed a strong reduction in activation efficiency by ThDP, while the mutations R372K and R376K showed a strong reductions in activation efficiency by FAD in comparison to the wild type enzyme. Taking into account the data presented here and the homology model constructed previously [Le et al. (2004) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 317, 930-938], it is suggested that the three amino acid residues studied (R141, R372, and R376) are located essentially at the enzyme active site, and, furthermore, that residues R372 and R376 are possibly responsible for the binding of the enzyme to FAD.

Amino acid residues conferring herbicide resistance in tobacco acetohydroxy acid synthase

The enzyme AHAS (acetohydroxy acid synthase), which is involved in the biosynthesis of valine, leucine and isoleucine, is the target of several classes of herbicides. A model of tobacco AHAS was generated based on the X-ray structure of yeast AHAS. Well conserved residues at the herbicide-binding site were identified, and the roles of three of these residues (Phe-205, Val-570 and Phe-577) were determined by site-directed mutagenesis. The Phe-205 mutants F205A, F205H, F205W and F205Y showed markedly decreased levels of catalytic efficiency, and cross-resistance to two or three classes of herbicides, i.e. Londax (a sulphonylurea herbicide), Cadre (an imidazolinone herbicide) and TP (a triazolopyrimidine derivative). None of the mutations caused significant changes in the secondary or tertiary structure of the enzyme. Four mutants of Phe-577, i.e. F577D, F577E, F577K and F577R, showed unaltered V(max) values, but substantially decreased catalytic efficiency. However, these mutants were highly resistant to two or three of the tested herbicides. The three mutants F577D, F577E and F577R had a similar secondary structure to that of wild-type AHAS. Conservative mutations of Phe-577, i.e. F577W and F577Y, did not affect the kinetic properties of the enzyme or its inhibition by herbicides. The mutation Val-570 to Asn abolished the binding affinity of the enzyme for FAD as well as its activity, and also caused a change in the tertiary structure of AHAS. However, the mutant V570Q was active, but resistant to two classes of herbicides, i.e. Londax and TP. The conservative mutant V570I was substantially reduced in catalytic efficiency and moderately resistant to the three herbicides. The results of this study suggest that residues Phe-205, Val-570 and Phe-577 in tobacco AHAS are located at or near the binding site that is common for the three classes of herbicides. In addition, Phe-205 and Val-570 are probably located at the herbicide-binding site that may overlap partially with the active site. Selected mutants of Phe-577 are expected to be utilized to construct herbicide-resistant transgenic plants.

Role of a Conserved Arginine in the Mechanism of Acetohydroxyacid Synthase

The thiamin diphosphate (ThDP)-dependent bio-synthetic enzyme acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) catalyzes decarboxylation of pyruvate and specific condensation of the resulting ThDP-bound two-carbon intermediate, hydroxyethyl-ThDP anion/enamine (HEThDP(-)), with a second ketoacid, to form acetolactate or acetohydroxybutyrate. Whereas the mechanism of formation of HEThDP(-) from pyruvate is well understood, the role of the enzyme in control of the carboligation reaction of HEThDP(-) is not. Recent crystal structures of yeast AHAS from Duggleby's laboratory suggested that an arginine residue might interact with the second ketoacid substrate. Mutagenesis of this completely conserved residue in Escherichia coli AHAS isozyme II (Arg(276)) confirms that it is required for rapid and specific reaction of the second ketoacid. In the mutant proteins, the normally rapid second phase of the reaction becomes rate-determining. A competing alternative nonnatural but stereospecific reaction of bound HEThDP(-) with benzaldehyde to form phenylacetylcarbinol (Engel, S., Vyazmensky, M., Geresh, S., Barak, Z., and Chipman, D. M. (2003) Biotechnol. Bioeng. 84, 833-840) provides a new tool for studying the fate of HEThDP(-) in AHAS, since the formation of the new product has a very different dependence on active site modifications than does acetohydroxyacid acid formation. The effects of mutagenesis of four different residues in the site on the rates and specificities of the normal and unnatural reactions support a critical role for Arg(276) in the stabilization of the transition states for ligation of the incoming second ketoacid with HEThDP(-) and/or for the breaking of the product-ThDP bond. This information makes it possible to engineer the active site so that it efficiently and preferentially catalyzes a new reaction.

Homology modeling of the structure of tobacco acetohydroxy acid synthase and examination of the active site by site-directed mutagenesis

A reliable model of tobacco acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) was obtained by homology modeling based on a yeast AHAS X-ray structure using the Swiss-Model server. Conserved residues at the dimer interface were identified, of which the functional roles of four residues, namely H142, E143, M489, and M542, were determined by site-directed mutagenesis. Eight mutants were successfully generated and purified, five of which (H142T, M489V, M542C, M542I, and M542V) were found to be inactive under various assay conditions. The H142K mutant was moderately altered in all kinetic parameters to a similar extent. In addition, the mutant was more thermo-labile than wild type enzyme. The E143A mutant increased the Km value more than 20-fold while other parameters were not significantly changed. All mutations carried out on residue M542 inactivated the enzyme. Though showing a single band on SDS-PAGE, the M542C mutant lost its native tertiary structure and was aggregated. Except M542C, each of the other mutants showed a secondary structure similar to that of wild type enzyme. Although all the inactive mutants were able to bind FAD, the mutants M489V and M542C showed a very low affinity for FAD. None of the active mutants constructed was strongly resistant to three tested herbicides. Taken together, the results suggest that the residues of H142, E143, M489, and M542 are essential for catalytic activity. Furthermore, it seems that H142 residue is involved in stabilizing the dimer interaction, while E143 residue may be involved in binding with substrate pyruvate. The data from the site-directed mutagenesis imply that the constructed homology model of tobacco AHAS is realistic.

The active site and mechanism of action of recombinant acetohydroxy acid synthase from tobacco

Acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) is one of several enzymes that require thiamine diphosphate and a divalent cation as essential cofactors. Recently, the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme from yeast has been determined [Pang et al., J. Mol. Biol. 317 (2002) 249-262]. While this structure sheds light on the binding of the cofactors and the reaction mechanism, the interactions between the substrates and the enzyme remain unclear. We have studied the pH dependence of kinetic parameters in order to obtain information about the chemical mechanism in the active site. Data are consistent with a mechanism in which substrate selectively catalyzed to the enzyme with an unprotonated base having a pK of 6.48, and a protonated group having a pK of 8.25 for catalysis. The temperature dependence of kinetic parameters was pH-dependent, and the enthalpies of ionization, DeltaH(ion), calculated from the slope of pK(1) and pK(2) are both pH-independent. The solvent perturbation of kinetic parameters was pH-dependent, and the pK(1) from the acidic side and the pK(2) from the basic side were shifted down 0.4 pH units and shifted up 0.6 units as water was replaced by 15% ethanol, respectively. The data are discussed in terms of the acid-base chemical mechanism.

Characterization of Two Forms of Acetolactate Synthase from Barley

Acetolactate synthase (ALS) catalyzes the first common step in the biosynthesis of valine, leucine, and isoleucine. ALS is the target site for several classes of herbicides, including sulfonylureas, imidazolinones, and triazolopyrimidines. Two forms of ALS (designated ALS I and ALS II) were separated from barley shoots by heparin affinity column chromatography. The molecular masses of native ALS I and ALS II were determined to be 248 kDa and 238 kDa by nondenaturing gel electrophoresis and activity staining. Similar molecular masses of two forms of ALS were confirmed by a Western blot analysis. SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis showed that the molecular masses of the ALS I and ALS II subunits were identical--65 kDa. The two ALS forms exhibited different properties with respect to the values of K(m), pI and optimum pH, and sensitivity to inhibition by herbicides sulfonylurea and imidazolinone as well as to the feedback regulation by the end-product amino acids Val, Leu, and Ile. These results, therefore, suggest that the two ALS forms are not different polymeric forms of the same enzyme, but isozymes.

Roles of conserved methionine residues in tobacco acetolactate synthase

Acetolactate synthase (ALS) catalyzes the first common step in the biosynthesis of valine, leucine, and isoleucine. ALS is the target of several classes of herbicides, including the sulfonylureas, the imidazolinones, and the triazolopyrimidines. The conserved methionine residues of ALS from plants were identified by multiple sequence alignment using ClustalW. The alignment of 17 ALS sequences from plants revealed 149 identical residues, seven of which were methionine residues. The roles of three well-conserved methionine residues (M350, M512, and M569) in tobacco ALS were determined using site-directed mutagenesis. The mutation of M350V, M512V, and M569V inactivated the enzyme and abolished the binding affinity for cofactor FAD. Nevertheless, the secondary structure of each of the mutants determined by CD spectrum was not affected significantly by the mutation. Both M350C and M569C mutants were strongly resistant to three classes of herbicides, Londax (a sulfonylurea), Cadre (an imidazolinone), and TP (a triazolopyrimidine), while M512C mutant did not show a significant resistance to the herbicides. The mutant M350C was more sensitive to pH change, while the mutant M569C showed a profile for pH dependence activity similar to that of wild type. These results suggest that M512 residue is likely located at or near the active site, and that M350 and M569 residues are probably located at the overlapping region between the active site and a common herbicide binding site.