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Kell DB, Oliver SG. How drugs get into cells: tested and testable predictions to help discriminate between transporter-mediated uptake and lipoidal bilayer diffusion. Front Pharmacol 2014; 5:231. [PMID: 25400580 PMCID: PMC4215795 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2014.00231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
One approach to experimental science involves creating hypotheses, then testing them by varying one or more independent variables, and assessing the effects of this variation on the processes of interest. We use this strategy to compare the intellectual status and available evidence for two models or views of mechanisms of transmembrane drug transport into intact biological cells. One (BDII) asserts that lipoidal phospholipid Bilayer Diffusion Is Important, while a second (PBIN) proposes that in normal intact cells Phospholipid Bilayer diffusion Is Negligible (i.e., may be neglected quantitatively), because evolution selected against it, and with transmembrane drug transport being effected by genetically encoded proteinaceous carriers or pores, whose “natural” biological roles, and substrates are based in intermediary metabolism. Despite a recent review elsewhere, we can find no evidence able to support BDII as we can find no experiments in intact cells in which phospholipid bilayer diffusion was either varied independently or measured directly (although there are many papers where it was inferred by seeing a covariation of other dependent variables). By contrast, we find an abundance of evidence showing cases in which changes in the activities of named and genetically identified transporters led to measurable changes in the rate or extent of drug uptake. PBIN also has considerable predictive power, and accounts readily for the large differences in drug uptake between tissues, cells and species, in accounting for the metabolite-likeness of marketed drugs, in pharmacogenomics, and in providing a straightforward explanation for the late-stage appearance of toxicity and of lack of efficacy during drug discovery programmes despite macroscopically adequate pharmacokinetics. Consequently, the view that Phospholipid Bilayer diffusion Is Negligible (PBIN) provides a starting hypothesis for assessing cellular drug uptake that is much better supported by the available evidence, and is both more productive and more predictive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas B Kell
- School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester Manchester, UK ; Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester Manchester, UK
| | - Stephen G Oliver
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge Cambridge, UK ; Cambridge Systems Biology Centre, University of Cambridge Cambridge, UK
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Smith D, Artursson P, Avdeef A, Di L, Ecker GF, Faller B, Houston JB, Kansy M, Kerns EH, Krämer SD, Lennernäs H, van de Waterbeemd H, Sugano K, Testa B. Passive Lipoidal Diffusion and Carrier-Mediated Cell Uptake Are Both Important Mechanisms of Membrane Permeation in Drug Disposition. Mol Pharm 2014; 11:1727-38. [DOI: 10.1021/mp400713v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Per Artursson
- Department of Pharmacy, Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University, S-752 63 Uppsala, Box 580, Sweden
| | - Alex Avdeef
- 1732 First
Avenue, #102, New York, New
York 10128, United States
| | - Li Di
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer Inc., Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Gerhard F. Ecker
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Vienna,
Althanstrasse, 141090 Wien, Austria
| | - Bernard Faller
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, WSJ-350.3.04, CH-4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - J. Brian Houston
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester, M13 9PT, U.K
| | - Manfred Kansy
- The Non-Clinical
Safety Department, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Edward H. Kerns
- National Center for Advancing Translational
Sciences, National Institutes of Health, 9800 Medical Center Drive, Rockville, Maryland 20850, United States
| | | | - Hans Lennernäs
- Department of Pharmacy, Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University, S-752 63 Uppsala, Box 580, Sweden
| | | | - Kiyohiko Sugano
- Research
Formulation, Sandwich Laboratories, Ramsgate Road, Sandwich, Kent CT13 9NJ, U.K
| | - Bernard Testa
- Department of Pharmacy, University Hospital Lausanne, CH-1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Errasti-Murugarren E, Pastor-Anglada M. Drug transporter pharmacogenetics in nucleoside-based therapies. Pharmacogenomics 2010; 11:809-41. [PMID: 20504255 DOI: 10.2217/pgs.10.70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This article focuses on the different types of transporter proteins that have been implicated in the influx and efflux of nucleoside-derived drugs currently used in the treatment of cancer, viral infections (i.e., AIDS) and other conditions, including autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Genetic variations in nucleoside-derived drug transporter proteins encoded by the gene families SLC15, SLC22, SLC28, SLC29, ABCB, ABCC and ABCG will be specifically considered. Variants known to affect biological function are summarized, with a particular emphasis on those for which clinical correlations have already been established. Given that relatively little is known regarding the genetic variability of the players involved in determining nucleoside-derived drug bioavailability, it is anticipated that major challenges will be faced in this area of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaitz Errasti-Murugarren
- The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Barcelona, Diagonal 645, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Center for Biomedical Research Network in the Subject Area of Liver and Digestive Diseases (CIBERehd), Barcelona 08071, Spain
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de Vries EF, van Waarde A, Harmsen MC, Mulder NH, Vaalburg W, Hospers GA. [(11)C]FMAU and [(18)F]FHPG as PET tracers for herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase enzyme activity and human cytomegalovirus infections. Nucl Med Biol 2000; 27:113-9. [PMID: 10773539 DOI: 10.1016/s0969-8051(99)00105-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
[(11)C]-2'-Fluoro-5-methyl-1-beta-D-arabinofuranosyluracil ([(11)C]FMAU) and [(18)F]-9-[(3-fluoro-1-hydroxy-2-propoxy)methyl]guanine ([(18)F]FHPG), radiolabeled representatives of two classes of antiviral agents, were evaluated as tracers for measuring herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (HSV-tk) enzyme activity after gene transfer and as tracers for localization of active human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infections. In vitro accumulation experiments revealed that both [(11)C]FMAU and [(18)F]FHPG accumulated significantly more in HSV-tk expressing cells than they did in control cells. [(18)F]FHPG uptake in HSV-tk expressing cells, however, was found to depend strongly on the cell line used, which might be due to cell type dependent membrane transport or cell type dependent substrate specific susceptibility of the enzyme. In vitro, both tracers exhibited a good selectivity for accumulation in HCMV-infected human umbilical vein endothelial cells over uninfected cells. In contrast to [(18)F]FHPG, [(11)C]FMAU uptake in control cells was relatively high due to phosphorylation of the tracer by host kinases. Therefore, [(18)F]FHPG appears to be the more selective tracer not only to predict HSV-tk gene therapy outcome, but also to localize active HCMV infections with PET.
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Affiliation(s)
- E F de Vries
- PET Center, Groningen University Hospital, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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