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Gertler M, Dürr M, Renner P, Poppert S, Askar M, Breidenbach J, Frank C, Preußel K, Schielke A, Werber D, Chalmers R, Robinson G, Feuerpfeil I, Tannich E, Gröger C, Stark K, Wilking H. Outbreak of Cryptosporidium hominis following river flooding in the city of Halle (Saale), Germany, August 2013. BMC Infect Dis 2015; 15:88. [PMID: 25879490 PMCID: PMC4344771 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-015-0807-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background During weeks 32–33, 2013, 24 cases of cryptosporidiosis were notified in the city of Halle (annual mean 2008–2012: 9 cases). We investigated the outbreak to identify the source and recommend control measures, considering that between weeks 23–25 the river Saale which flows through the city centre overflowed the floodplain, parts of the city centre and damaged sewage systems. Methods We defined a case as a resident of Halle with gastroenteritis, Cryptosporidium-positive stool and disease onset weeks 27 through 47. In a case–control study among kindergarten children, we compared cases and controls regarding environmental exposure, use of swimming pools, zoo visits and tap water consumption 14 days pre-onset or a corresponding 14-days-period (controls) and adjusted for residence. Stool specimens were tested by microscopy and PCR, and Cryptosporidium DNA was sequenced. Samples from public water system, swimming pools and river Saale were examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts (microscopy and PCR). Results Overall, 167 cases were detected, 40/167 (24%) were classified as secondary cases. First disease onsets occurred during week 29, numbers peaked in week 34 and started to decrease in week 36. Median age was 8 years (range: 0–77). Compared to controls (n = 61), cases (n = 20) were more likely to report visits to previously flooded areas (OR: 4.9; 95%-CI: 1.4-18) and the zoo (OR: 2.6; 95%-CI: 0.9-7.6). In multivariable analysis visits to the floodplain remained the sole risk factor (OR: 5.5; 95%-CI: 1.4-22). Only C.hominis of a single genotype (IbA9G2) was detected in stools. Oocysts were detected in samples from the river, two local lakes and three public swimming pools by microscopy, but not in the public water supply. Conclusions Evidence suggests that activities in the dried out floodplain led to infection among children. Secondary transmissions may be involved. Consequently, authorities recommended to avoid playing, swimming and having picnics in the flood-affected area. Health authorities should consider the potential health risks of long-term surviving parasites persisting on flooded grounds and in open waters even several weeks after the flooding and of bathing places close to sewage spill-overs. Preventive measures comprise water sampling (involving parasites), information of the public and prolonged closures of potentially contaminated sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Gertler
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute (RKI), Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany. .,Postgraduate Training for Applied Epidemiology, affiliated to the European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training, European Centres of Disease Controle (ECDC), Sweden, Europe.
| | - Matthias Dürr
- Public Health authority Halle (Saale), Niemeyerstraße 1, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany.
| | - Peter Renner
- Federal Environment Protection Agency (UBA), Heinrich-Heine-Str. 12, 08645, Bad Elster, Germany.
| | - Sven Poppert
- National Reference Centre for Tropical Pathogens, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine (BNI), Bernhard-Nocht-Straße 74, 20359, Hamburg, Germany. .,Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Giessen, Germany.
| | - Mona Askar
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute (RKI), Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Janina Breidenbach
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute (RKI), Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Christina Frank
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute (RKI), Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Karina Preußel
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute (RKI), Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Anika Schielke
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute (RKI), Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Dirk Werber
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute (RKI), Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Rachel Chalmers
- Cryptosporidium Reference Unit, Public Health Wales Microbiology, Singleton Hospital, Swansea, SA2 8QA, UK.
| | - Guy Robinson
- Cryptosporidium Reference Unit, Public Health Wales Microbiology, Singleton Hospital, Swansea, SA2 8QA, UK.
| | - Irmgard Feuerpfeil
- Federal Environment Protection Agency (UBA), Heinrich-Heine-Str. 12, 08645, Bad Elster, Germany.
| | - Egbert Tannich
- National Reference Centre for Tropical Pathogens, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine (BNI), Bernhard-Nocht-Straße 74, 20359, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Christine Gröger
- Public Health authority Halle (Saale), Niemeyerstraße 1, 06110, Halle (Saale), Germany.
| | - Klaus Stark
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute (RKI), Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Hendrik Wilking
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute (RKI), Seestraße 10, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
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Hawash Y. DNA extraction from protozoan oocysts/cysts in feces for diagnostic PCR. THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PARASITOLOGY 2014; 52:263-71. [PMID: 25031466 PMCID: PMC4096637 DOI: 10.3347/kjp.2014.52.3.263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2013] [Revised: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 04/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
PCR detection of intestinal protozoa is often restrained by a poor DNA recovery or by inhibitors present in feces. The need for an extraction protocol that can overcome these obstacles is therefore clear. QIAamp® DNA Stool Mini Kit (Qiagen) was evaluated for its ability to recover DNA from oocysts/cysts directly from feces. Twenty-five Giardia-positive, 15 Cryptosporidium-positive, 15 Entamoeba histolytica-positive, and 45 protozoa-free samples were processed as control by microscopy and immunoassay tests. DNA extracts were amplified using 3 sets of published primers. Following the manufacturer's protocol, the kit showed sensitivity and specificity of 100% towards Giardia and Entamoeba. However, for Cryptosporidium, the sensitivity and specificity were 60% (9/15) and 100%, respectively. A series of optimization experiments involving various steps of the kit's protocol were conducted using Cryptosporidium-positive samples. The best DNA recoveries were gained by raising the lysis temperature to the boiling point for 10 min and the incubation time of the InhibitEX tablet to 5 min. Also, using a pre-cooled ethanol for nucleic acid precipitation and small elution volume (50-100 µl) were valuable. The sensitivity of the amended protocol to Cryptosporidium was raised to 100%. Cryptosporidium DNA was successfully amplified by either the first or the second primer set. When applied on parasite-free feces spiked with variable oocysts/cysts counts, ≈ 2 oocysts/cysts were theoretically enough for detection by PCR. To conclude, the Qiagen kit with the amended protocol was proved to be suitable for protozoan DNA extraction directly from feces and support PCR diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yousry Hawash
- Department of Medical Parasitology, NLI, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Koom, Menoufia, Egypt. ; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Al-Taif University, Al-Taif, Saudi Arabia
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Ayed SB, Bouratbine A. Entamoeba dispar strains: analysis of polymorphism in Tunisian isolates. Acta Trop 2013; 125:107-9. [PMID: 23036807 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2012.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2012] [Revised: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The ability to detect intra-species polymorphism in Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba dispar is an important tool for studying geographic distribution and transmission mechanisms. E. dispar and E. histolytica share the same mechanism for transmission among human hosts, and so after differentiation between these species. We studied the intra-species variation and distribution of E. dispar strains obtained from cyst passers, specifically from African students and Tunisian food handlers. We analyzed the polymorphic region of the chitinase protein gene in 13 individuals infected with E. dispar, of which 9 were from Tunisia and 4 from other African countries. We identified 7 different chitinase patterns in Tunisians while the 4 isolates from other countries each had a distinct pattern. Two of the patterns we found have been reported in studies from Mexico and India, possibly indicating worldwide spread of certain strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumaya Ben Ayed
- Department of Parasitology - Mycology, LR 11-IPT-06, Pasteur Institute, Tunis, Tunisia.
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Ali IKM, Clark CG, Petri WA. Molecular epidemiology of amebiasis. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2008; 8:698-707. [PMID: 18571478 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2008.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2008] [Revised: 04/18/2008] [Accepted: 05/01/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Entamoeba histolytica, the causative agent of human amebiasis, remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in developing countries and is responsible for up to 100,000 deaths worldwide each year. Entamoeba dispar, morphologically indistinguishable from E. histolytica, is more common in humans in many parts of the world. Similarly Entamoeba moshkovskii, which was long considered to be a free-living ameba, is also morphologically identical to E. histolytica and E. dispar, and is highly prevalent in some E. histolytica endemic countries. However, the only species to cause disease in humans is E. histolytica. Most old epidemiological data on E. histolytica are unusable as the techniques employed do not differentiate between the above three Entamoeba species. Molecular tools are now available not only to diagnose these species accurately but also to study intra-species genetic diversity. Recent studies suggest that only a minority of all E. histolytica infections progress to the development of clinical symptoms in the host and there exist population level differences between the E. histolytica strains isolated from the asymptomatic and symptomatic individuals. Nevertheless the underlying factors responsible for variable clinical outcome of infection by E. histolytica remain largely unknown. We anticipate that the recently completed E. histolytica genome sequence and new molecular techniques will rapidly advance our understanding of the epidemiology and pathogenicity of amebiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibne Karim M Ali
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia Health System, MR4 Building Room 2115, Lane Road, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.
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Fotedar R, Stark D, Beebe N, Marriott D, Ellis J, Harkness J. Laboratory diagnostic techniques for Entamoeba species. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007; 20:511-32, table of contents. [PMID: 17630338 PMCID: PMC1932757 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00004-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genus Entamoeba contains many species, six of which (Entamoeba histolytica, Entamoeba dispar, Entamoeba moshkovskii, Entamoeba polecki, Entamoeba coli, and Entamoeba hartmanni) reside in the human intestinal lumen. Entamoeba histolytica is the causative agent of amebiasis and is considered a leading parasitic cause of death worldwide in humans. Although recent studies highlight the recovery of E. dispar and E. moshkovskii from patients with gastrointestinal symptoms, there is still no convincing evidence of a causal link between the presence of these two species and the symptoms of the host. New approaches to the identification of E. histolytica are based on detection of E. histolytica-specific antigen and DNA in stool and other clinical samples. Several molecular diagnostic tests, including conventional and real-time PCR, have been developed for the detection and differentiation of E. histolytica, E. dispar, and E. moshkovskii in clinical samples. The purpose of this review is to discuss different methods that exist for the identification of E. histolytica, E. dispar, and E. moshkovskii which are available to the clinical diagnostic laboratory. To address the need for a specific diagnostic test for amebiasis, a substantial amount of work has been carried out over the last decade in different parts of the world. The molecular diagnostic tests are increasingly being used for both clinical and research purposes. In order to minimize undue treatment of individuals infected with other species of Entamoeba such as E. dispar and E. moshkovskii, efforts have been made for specific diagnosis of E. histolytica infection and not to treat based simply on the microscopic examination of Entamoeba species in the stool. The incorporation of many new technologies into the diagnostic laboratory will lead to a better understanding of the public health problem and measures to control the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Fotedar
- St. Vincent's Hospital, Department of Microbiology, Sydney, Darlinghurst, NSW 2010, Australia
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Ali IKM, Mondal U, Roy S, Haque R, Petri WA, Clark CG. Evidence for a link between parasite genotype and outcome of infection with Entamoeba histolytica. J Clin Microbiol 2006; 45:285-9. [PMID: 17122021 PMCID: PMC1829016 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01335-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The factors determining whether a person infected with Entamoeba histolytica develops disease remain obscure. To investigate whether the parasite genome contributes to the outcome, we have investigated the distribution of parasite genotypes among E. histolytica-infected individuals in Bangladesh. Samples were obtained from individuals who either were asymptomatic, had diarrhea/dysentery, or had developed a liver abscess. Genotypes were determined by using six tRNA-linked polymorphic markers, and their distributions among the three sample groups were evaluated. A significant population differentiation in the genotype distribution was found for four of the six individual markers as well as for the combined genotypes, suggesting that the parasite genome does contribute in some way to the outcome of infection with E. histolytica. The markers themselves do not indicate the nature of the underlying genetic differences, but they may be linked to loci that do have an impact on the outcome of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibne Karim M Ali
- Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, Great Britain
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Gobert GN, Chai M, Duke M, McManus DP. Copro-PCR based detection of Schistosoma eggs using mitochondrial DNA markers. Mol Cell Probes 2005; 19:250-4. [PMID: 16038793 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcp.2005.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2004] [Accepted: 01/31/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We report on a sensitive, specific and easy to interpret PCR based diagnostic tool for the detection of Schistosoma japonicum eggs in the faeces of infected mammalian hosts. Primer pairs were designed to amplify regions of the mitochondrial DNA of the parasite. The specificity of the PCR primers was tested using either faecal samples from non-infected hosts or hosts infected with the related schistosome species S. mansoni. Sensitivity was investigated in a study, which differentiated the presence or absence of eggs in faecal samples. PCR results were correlated with analysis of the samples by microscopy. PCR analysis provided a level of sensitivity of 87.7%, while specificity was 100%. The PCR-based assay could detect mitochondrial DNA from as little as 0.3 of a single egg. The overall detection threshold of the PCR test was >or=60 eggs per gram of faeces. Advantages of this technique include the ability to scale-up screening and the reproducibility and simplicity of interpretation of results compared with standard microscopic methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey N Gobert
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Royal Brisbane Hospital Post Office, Herston, Qld. 4006, Australia.
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Pinheiro SMB, Maciel RF, Morais MA, Aca IS, Carvalho LB, Coimbra MRM. Genetic characterization of Entamoeba dispar isolates in Northeast Brazil. Acta Trop 2005; 94:35-40. [PMID: 15777694 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2005.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2004] [Revised: 12/23/2004] [Accepted: 01/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The genetic variability of Entamoeba dispar strains was investigated in 39 positive isolates on a survey of 1783 individuals from two different cities of Northeast Brazil (Recife and Macaparana) using two polymorphic species-specific loci (loci 1-2 and 5-6). A combinatory clustering analysis revealed no geographical correlation and remarkable genetic polymorphism among all the isolates examined. Nevertheless, a comparison of the frequency of eight individual PCR products, shared by both Recife and Macaparana populations, for the two loci, showed that only one product of locus 5-6 was significantly different between the two cities. These results suggested that the Macaparana population is infected by similar strains and that locus 5-6 shows potential in assaying questions related to the molecular epidemiology of this region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M B Pinheiro
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia Keizo Asami, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Cidade Universitária, Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
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