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Raha S, Dutta D, Paidi RK, Pahan K. Lipid-Lowering Drug Gemfibrozil Protects Mice from Tay-Sachs Disease via Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor α. Cells 2023; 12:2791. [PMID: 38132111 PMCID: PMC10741479 DOI: 10.3390/cells12242791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Tay-Sachs disease (TSD) is a progressive heritable neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the deficiency of the lysosomal β-hexosaminidase enzyme (Hex-/-) and the storage of GM2 ganglioside, as well as other related glycoconjugates. Along with motor difficulties, TSD patients also manifest a gradual loss of skills and behavioral problems, followed by early death. Unfortunately, there is no cure for TSD; however, research on treatments and therapeutic approaches is ongoing. This study underlines the importance of gemfibrozil (GFB), an FDA-approved lipid-lowering drug, in inhibiting the disease process in a transgenic mouse model of Tay-Sachs. Oral administration of GFB significantly suppressed glial activation and inflammation, while also reducing the accumulation of GM2 gangliosides/glycoconjugates in the motor cortex of Tay-Sachs mice. Furthermore, oral GFB improved behavioral performance and increased the life expectancy of Tay-Sachs mice. While investigating the mechanism, we found that oral administration of GFB increased the level of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) in the brain of Tay-Sachs mice, and that GFB remained unable to reduce glycoconjugates and improve behavior and survival in Tay-Sachs mice lacking PPARα. Our results indicate a beneficial function of GFB that employs a PPARα-dependent mechanism to halt the progression of TSD and increase longevity in Tay-Sachs mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumita Raha
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (S.R.); (D.D.); (R.K.P.)
| | - Debashis Dutta
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (S.R.); (D.D.); (R.K.P.)
| | - Ramesh K. Paidi
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (S.R.); (D.D.); (R.K.P.)
| | - Kalipada Pahan
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; (S.R.); (D.D.); (R.K.P.)
- Division of Research and Development, Jesse Brown Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 820 South Damen Avenue, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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Kamoshita M, Kumar R, Anteghini M, Kunze M, Islinger M, Martins dos Santos V, Schrader M. Insights Into the Peroxisomal Protein Inventory of Zebrafish. Front Physiol 2022; 13:822509. [PMID: 35295584 PMCID: PMC8919083 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.822509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Peroxisomes are ubiquitous, oxidative subcellular organelles with important functions in cellular lipid metabolism and redox homeostasis. Loss of peroxisomal functions causes severe disorders with developmental and neurological abnormalities. Zebrafish are emerging as an attractive vertebrate model to study peroxisomal disorders as well as cellular lipid metabolism. Here, we combined bioinformatics analyses with molecular cell biology and reveal the first comprehensive inventory of Danio rerio peroxisomal proteins, which we systematically compared with those of human peroxisomes. Through bioinformatics analysis of all PTS1-carrying proteins, we demonstrate that D. rerio lacks two well-known mammalian peroxisomal proteins (BAAT and ZADH2/PTGR3), but possesses a putative peroxisomal malate synthase (Mlsl) and verified differences in the presence of purine degrading enzymes. Furthermore, we revealed novel candidate peroxisomal proteins in D. rerio, whose function and localisation is discussed. Our findings confirm the suitability of zebrafish as a vertebrate model for peroxisome research and open possibilities for the study of novel peroxisomal candidate proteins in zebrafish and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maki Kamoshita
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Rechal Kumar
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
| | - Marco Anteghini
- LifeGlimmer GmbH, Berlin, Germany
- Systems and Synthetic Biology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Markus Kunze
- Center for Brain Research, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Markus Islinger
- Institute of Neuroanatomy, Mannheim Center for Translational Neuroscience, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Vítor Martins dos Santos
- LifeGlimmer GmbH, Berlin, Germany
- Systems and Synthetic Biology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Michael Schrader
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Michael Schrader,
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Aboobucker SI, Lorence A. Recent progress on the characterization of aldonolactone oxidoreductases. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2016; 98:171-85. [PMID: 26696130 PMCID: PMC4725720 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2015.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Revised: 11/23/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
L-Ascorbic acid (ascorbate, AsA, vitamin C) is essential for animal and plant health. Despite our dependence on fruits and vegetables to fulfill our requirement for this vitamin, the metabolic network leading to its formation in plants is just being fully elucidated. There is evidence supporting the operation of at least four biosynthetic pathways leading to AsA formation in plants. These routes use D-mannose/L-galactose, L-gulose, D-galacturonate, and myo-inositol as the main precursors. This review focuses on aldonolactone oxidoreductases, a subgroup of the vanillyl alcohol oxidase (VAO; EC 1.1.3.38) superfamily, enzymes that catalyze the terminal step in AsA biosynthesis in bacteria, protozoa, animals, and plants. In this report, we review the properties of well characterized aldonolactone oxidoreductases to date. A shared feature in these proteins is the presence of a flavin cofactor as well as a thiol group. The flavin cofactor in many cases is bound to the N terminus of the enzymes or to a recently discovered HWXK motif in the C terminus. The binding between the flavin moiety and the protein can be either covalent or non-covalent. Substrate specificity and subcellular localization differ among the isozymes of each kingdom. All oxidases among these enzymes possess dehydrogenase activity, however, exclusive dehydrogenases are also found. We also discuss recent evidence indicating that plants have both L-gulono-1,4-lactone oxidases and L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenases involved in AsA biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddique I Aboobucker
- Arkansas Biosciences Institute, Arkansas State University, P.O. Box 639, State University, AR 72467, USA
| | - Argelia Lorence
- Arkansas Biosciences Institute, Arkansas State University, P.O. Box 639, State University, AR 72467, USA; Department of Chemistry and Physics, Arkansas State University, P.O. Box 419, State University, AR 72467, USA.
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PPARα signaling in the hippocampus: crosstalk between fat and memory. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2015; 10:30-4. [PMID: 25575492 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-014-9582-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Major functions of the hippocampus are to generate, organize and store memory. This is a complex process, which is orchestrated by a group of molecules, called plasticity-related molecules. To control these various plasticity-related molecules at the transcriptional level, we have been endowed with cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), also known as a master regulator of memory. Interestingly, we have seen that this master regulator is regulated at the transcriptional level in the hippocampus by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα), a nuclear hormone receptor family transcription factor that is known to control the metabolism of fatty acids in the liver, underlying a possible crosstalk between fat and memory. Although liver PPARα does not directly control hippocampal CREB, this opens up an important possibility to improve hippocampal functions and to be resistant to memory loss by PPARα ligands and maintaining normal levels of PPARα in the hippocampus.
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Abstract
Gemfibrozil is long known for its ability to reduce the level of triglycerides in the blood circulation and to decrease the risk of hyperlipidemia. However, a number of recent studies reveal that apart from its lipid-lowering effects, gemfibrozil can also regulate many other signaling pathways responsible for inflammation, switching of T-helper cells, cell-to-cell contact, migration, and oxidative stress. In this review, we have made an honest attempt to analyze various biological activities of gemfibrozil and associated mechanisms that may help to consider this drug for different human disorders as primary or adjunct therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avik Roy
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA
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Islinger M, Li KW, Loos M, Liebler S, Angermüller S, Eckerskorn C, Weber G, Abdolzade A, Völkl A. Peroxisomes from the Heavy Mitochondrial Fraction: Isolation by Zonal Free Flow Electrophoresis and Quantitative Mass Spectrometrical Characterization. J Proteome Res 2009; 9:113-24. [DOI: 10.1021/pr9004663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Markus Islinger
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ruprecht-Karl University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands, and BD Diagnostics - Preanalytical Systems, 82152 Planegg/Martinsried, Germany
| | - Ka Wan Li
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ruprecht-Karl University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands, and BD Diagnostics - Preanalytical Systems, 82152 Planegg/Martinsried, Germany
| | - Maarten Loos
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ruprecht-Karl University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands, and BD Diagnostics - Preanalytical Systems, 82152 Planegg/Martinsried, Germany
| | - Sven Liebler
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ruprecht-Karl University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands, and BD Diagnostics - Preanalytical Systems, 82152 Planegg/Martinsried, Germany
| | - Sabine Angermüller
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ruprecht-Karl University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands, and BD Diagnostics - Preanalytical Systems, 82152 Planegg/Martinsried, Germany
| | - Christoph Eckerskorn
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ruprecht-Karl University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands, and BD Diagnostics - Preanalytical Systems, 82152 Planegg/Martinsried, Germany
| | - Gerhard Weber
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ruprecht-Karl University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands, and BD Diagnostics - Preanalytical Systems, 82152 Planegg/Martinsried, Germany
| | - Afsaneh Abdolzade
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ruprecht-Karl University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands, and BD Diagnostics - Preanalytical Systems, 82152 Planegg/Martinsried, Germany
| | - Alfred Völkl
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Ruprecht-Karl University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany, Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands, and BD Diagnostics - Preanalytical Systems, 82152 Planegg/Martinsried, Germany
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Margittai É, Csala M, Mandl J, Bánhegyi G. Participation of low molecular weight electron carriers in oxidative protein folding. Int J Mol Sci 2009; 10:1346-1359. [PMID: 19399252 PMCID: PMC2672033 DOI: 10.3390/ijms10031346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2009] [Revised: 03/08/2009] [Accepted: 03/17/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative protein folding is mediated by a proteinaceous electron relay system, in which the concerted action of protein disulfide isomerase and Ero1 delivers the electrons from thiol groups to the final acceptor. Oxygen appears to be the final oxidant in aerobic living organisms, although the existence of alternative electron acceptors, e.g. fumarate or nitrate, cannot be excluded. Whilst the protein components of the system are well-known, less attention has been turned to the role of low molecular weight electron carriers in the process. The function of ascorbate, tocopherol and vitamin K has been raised recently. In vitro and in vivo evidence suggests that these redox-active compounds can contribute to the functioning of oxidative folding. This review focuses on the participation of small molecular weight redox compounds in oxidative protein folding.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Gábor Bánhegyi
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail:
; Tel. +36-1-4591500; Fax: +36-1-2662615
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Margittai E, Bánhegyi G. Isocitrate dehydrogenase: A NADPH-generating enzyme in the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008; 471:184-90. [PMID: 18201546 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2007.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2007] [Revised: 12/21/2007] [Accepted: 12/30/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was the investigation of the occurrence of NADPH-generating pathways in the endoplasmic reticulum others then hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. A significant isocitrate and a moderate malate-dependent NADP+ reduction were observed in endoplasmic reticulum-derived rat liver microsomes. The isocitrate-dependent activity was very likely attributable to the appearance of the cytosolic isocitrate dehydrogenase isozyme in the lumen. The isocitrate dehydrogenase activity of microsomes was present in the luminal fraction; it showed a strong preference towards NADP+ versus NAD+, and it was almost completely latent. Antibodies against the cytosolic isoform of isocitrate dehydrogenase immunorevealed a microsomal protein of identical molecular weight; the microsomal enzyme showed similar kinetic parameters and oxalomalate inhibition as the cytosolic one. Measurable luminal isocitrate dehydrogenase activity was also present in microsomes from rat epididymal fat. The results suggest that isocitrate dehydrogenase is an important NADPH-generating enzyme in the endoplasmic reticulum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Margittai
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University, Pathobiochemistry Research Group of The Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1444 Budapest, P.O. Box 260, Budapest, Hungary
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Abstract
Vitamin C, a reducing agent and antioxidant, is a cofactor in reactions catalyzed by Cu(+)-dependent monooxygenases and Fe(2+)-dependent dioxygenases. It is synthesized, in vertebrates having this capacity, from d-glucuronate. The latter is formed through direct hydrolysis of uridine diphosphate (UDP)-glucuronate by enzyme(s) bound to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane, sharing many properties with, and most likely identical to, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases. Non-glucuronidable xenobiotics (aminopyrine, metyrapone, chloretone and others) stimulate the enzymatic hydrolysis of UDP-glucuronate, accounting for their effect to increase vitamin C formation in vivo. Glucuronate is converted to l-gulonate by aldehyde reductase, an enzyme of the aldo-keto reductase superfamily. l-Gulonate is converted to l-gulonolactone by a lactonase identified as SMP30 or regucalcin, whose absence in mice leads to vitamin C deficiency. The last step in the pathway of vitamin C synthesis is the oxidation of l-gulonolactone to l-ascorbic acid by l-gulonolactone oxidase, an enzyme associated with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane and deficient in man, guinea pig and other species due to mutations in its gene. Another fate of glucuronate is its conversion to d-xylulose in a five-step pathway, the pentose pathway, involving identified oxidoreductases and an unknown decarboxylase. Semidehydroascorbate, a major oxidation product of vitamin C, is reconverted to ascorbate in the cytosol by cytochrome b(5) reductase and thioredoxin reductase in reactions involving NADH and NADPH, respectively. Transmembrane electron transfer systems using ascorbate or NADH as electron donors serve to reduce semidehydroascorbate present in neuroendocrine secretory vesicles and in the extracellular medium. Dehydroascorbate, the fully oxidized form of vitamin C, is reduced spontaneously by glutathione, as well as enzymatically in reactions using glutathione or NADPH. The degradation of vitamin C in mammals is initiated by the hydrolysis of dehydroascorbate to 2,3-diketo-l-gulonate, which is spontaneously degraded to oxalate, CO(2) and l-erythrulose. This is at variance with bacteria such as Escherichia coli, which have enzymatic degradation pathways for ascorbate and probably also dehydroascorbate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole L Linster
- Université Catholique de Louvain, Christian de Duve Institute of Cellular Pathology, Brussels, Belgium
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Abstract
Although a change in life-style is often the method of first choice for lipid lowering, lipid-lowering drugs, in general, help to control elevated levels of different forms of lipids in patients with hyperlipidemia. While one group of drugs, statins, lowers cholesterol, the other group, fibrates, is known to take care of fatty acids and triglycerides. In addition, other drugs, such as ezetimibe, colesevelam, torcetrapib, avasimibe, implitapide, and niacin are also being considered to manage hyperlipidemia. As lipids are very critical for cardiovascular diseases, these drugs reduce fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular abnormalities in the general population. However, a number of recent studies indicate that apart from their lipid-lowering activities, statins and fibrates exhibit multiple functions to modulate intracellular signaling pathways, inhibit inflammation, suppress the production of reactive oxygen species, and modulate T cell activity. Therefore, nowadays, these drugs are being considered as possible therapeutics for several forms of human disorders including cancer, autoimmunity, inflammation, and neurodegeneration. Here I discuss these applications in the light of newly discovered modes of action of these drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Pahan
- Section of Neuroscience, Department of Oral Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, 40th and Holdrege, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583, USA.
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Mukherji M, Schofield CJ, Wierzbicki AS, Jansen GA, Wanders RJA, Lloyd MD. The chemical biology of branched-chain lipid metabolism. Prog Lipid Res 2003; 42:359-76. [PMID: 12814641 DOI: 10.1016/s0163-7827(03)00016-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian metabolism of some lipids including 3-methyl and 2-methyl branched-chain fatty acids occurs within peroxisomes. Such lipids, including phytanic and pristanic acids, are commonly found within the human diet and may be derived from chlorophyll in plant extracts. Due to the presence of a methyl group at its beta-carbon, the well-characterised beta-oxidation pathway cannot degrade phytanic acid. Instead its alpha-methylene group is oxidatively excised to give pristanic acid, which can be metabolised by the beta-oxidation pathway. Many defects in the alpha-oxidation pathway result in an accumulation of phytanic acid, leading to neurological distress, deterioration of vision, deafness, loss of coordination and eventual death. Details of the alpha-oxidation pathway have only recently been elucidated, and considerable progress has been made in understanding the detailed enzymology of one of the oxidative steps within this pathway. This review summarises these recent advances and considers the roles and likely mechanisms of the enzymes within the alpha-oxidation pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mridul Mukherji
- The Oxford Centre for Molecular Sciences & The Dyson Perrins Laboratory, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK
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Pahan K, Jana M, Liu X, Taylor BS, Wood C, Fischer SM. Gemfibrozil, a lipid-lowering drug, inhibits the induction of nitric-oxide synthase in human astrocytes. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:45984-91. [PMID: 12244038 PMCID: PMC2045648 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m200250200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Gemfibrozil, a lipid-lowering drug, inhibited cytokine-induced production of NO and the expression of inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) in human U373MG astroglial cells and primary astrocytes. Similar to gemfibrozil, clofibrate, another fibrate drug, also inhibited the expression of iNOS. Inhibition of human iNOS promoter-driven luciferase activity by gemfibrozil in cytokine-stimulated U373MG astroglial cells suggests that this compound inhibits the transcription of iNOS. Since gemfibrozil is known to activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha), we investigated the role of PPAR-alpha in gemfibrozil-mediated inhibition of iNOS. Gemfibrozil induced peroxisome proliferator-responsive element (PPRE)-dependent luciferase activity, which was inhibited by the expression of DeltahPPAR-alpha, the dominant-negative mutant of human PPAR-alpha. However, DeltahPPAR-alpha was unable to abrogate gemfibrozil-mediated inhibition of iNOS suggesting that gemfibrozil inhibits iNOS independent of PPAR-alpha. The human iNOS promoter contains consensus sequences for the binding of transcription factors, including interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) regulatory factor-1 (IRF-1) binding to interferon-stimulated responsive element (ISRE), signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) binding to gamma-activation site (GAS), nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), activator protein-1 (AP-1), and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein beta (C/EBPbeta); therefore, we investigated the effect of gemfibrozil on the activation of these transcription factors. The combination of interleukin (IL)-1beta and IFN-gamma induced the activation of NF-kappaB, AP-1, C/EBPbeta, and GAS but not that of ISRE, suggesting that IRF-1 may not be involved in cytokine-induced expression of iNOS in human astrocytes. Interestingly, gemfibrozil strongly inhibited the activation of NF-kappaB, AP-1, and C/EBPbeta but not that of GAS in cytokine-stimulated astroglial cells. These results suggest that gemfibrozil inhibits the induction of iNOS probably by inhibiting the activation of NF-kappaB, AP-1, and C/EBPbeta and that gemfibrozil, a prescribed drug for humans, may further find its therapeutic use in neuroinflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalipada Pahan
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583, USA.
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