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Hernandez-Nieto C, Lee J, Alkon-Meadows T, Soto-Cossio L, Sandler B, Mukherjee T, Copperman A. Recent clomiphene citrate exposure does not impact subsequent clinical outcomes in single euploid frozen embryo transfer cycles. Hum Reprod 2023:7131351. [PMID: 37075318 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/dead072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023] Open
Abstract
STUDY QUESTION Do infertile couples who recently utilized clomiphene citrate (CC) for ovulation induction or ovarian stimulation (<90 days previously) followed by a single euploid embryo transfer (SEET) have lower implantation potential compared with patients who were not exposed to CC within 90 days before embryo transfer (ET)? SUMMARY ANSWER There does not appear to be an association between recent CC exposure and lower implantation potential in patients who undergo a frozen embryo transfer (FET) of euploid embryos. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY Clomiphene has been found to be associated with lower pregnancy rates when compared against other ovarian stimulation medications. The majority of published research about the effects of CC on implantation potential suggest an anti-estrogenic effect on the endometrium. Quality evidence and information about utilization of CC and its effect on implantation potential after euploid ETs is lacking in the literature. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION A retrospective cohort study with propensity score matching was carried out. We included all patients that underwent an autologous SEET from September 2016 to September 2022 at a single academic-private ART center. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS The study group included patients that had utilized CC during either ovulation induction cycles and/or controlled ovarian stimulation at least 90 days before FET. A propensity score-matched control group of patients that were unexposed to CC within 90 days prior to SEET was used for comparisons. The primary outcome was positive pregnancy test (defined as a positive serum β-hCG measured 9 days after ET), with other outcomes including clinical pregnancy, ongoing pregnancy, biochemical pregnancy loss, and clinical pregnancy loss rates per SEET. Multivariate regression analyses fitted with generalized estimating equations were utilized to analyze if there was an association between CC utilization and IVF outcomes. Furthermore, the study evaluated the cumulative effect of CC and endometrial receptivity in vivo and subsequent IVF outcomes. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE A total of 593 patients with utilization of CC in <90 days before ET were compared with 1779 matched controls. Positive pregnancy test rates were comparable among the control group and the CC exposed groups, respectively (74.3% versus 75.7%, P = 0.79), as were clinical pregnancy (64.0% versus 65.0%, P = 0.60), ongoing pregnancy (51.8% versus 53.2%, P = 0.74), biochemical pregnancy loss (15.7% versus 14.03%, P = 0.45), and clinical pregnancy loss rates were also comparable among cohorts (17.1% versus 18.1%, P = 0.71). No association was found between utilization of clomiphene and lower implantation rates (adjusted odds ratio 0.95, 95% CI 0.76-1.18). Also, no differences were observed in sub-analyses based on multiple CC utilization periods. Finally, no association was found between the number of consecutive cumulative clomiphene cycles and sub-optimal IVF outcomes. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION The study has inherent bias that originated from its retrospective design. Serum levels of CC were not measured and sample size for the sub-analyses was small. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS There does not appear to be an association between recent CC exposure and lower implantation potential in patients who undergo a FET of euploid embryos. This finding remains consistent, even in patients who undergo multiple, consecutive clomiphene cycles prior to ET. There were no long-term effects of CC on endometrial development and clinical characteristics examined in this study. Patients that utilized CC medication prior to a SEET cycle for either ovarian stimulation or ovulation induction, can be assured that there is no evidence of a residual effect of recent CC administration that could jeopardize their pregnancy probability. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S) No funding was received for the realization of this study. A.C. is advisor and/or board member of Sema4 (stakeholder in data) and Progyny. The other authors have no conflicts of interest to declare. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER N/A.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joseph Lee
- Reproductive Medicine Associates of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Luz Soto-Cossio
- Reproductive Medicine Associates of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Benjamin Sandler
- Reproductive Medicine Associates of New York, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Science, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tanmoy Mukherjee
- Reproductive Medicine Associates of New York, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Science, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Alan Copperman
- Reproductive Medicine Associates of New York, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Science, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
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Xu XL, Huang ZY, Yu K, Li J, Fu XW, Deng SL. Estrogen Biosynthesis and Signal Transduction in Ovarian Disease. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:827032. [PMID: 35299973 PMCID: PMC8921451 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.827032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Estrogen mainly binds to estrogen receptors (ERs) to regulate menstrual cycles and reproduction. The expression of ERalpha (ERα), ERbeta (ERβ), and G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) mRNA could be detected in ovary, suggesting that they play an important role in estrogen signal transduction in ovary. And many studies have revealed that abnormal expression of estrogen and its receptors is closely related to ovarian disease or malignant tumors. With the continuous development and research of animal models, tissue-specific roles of both ERα and ERβ have been demonstrated in animals, which enable people to have a deeper understanding of the potential role of ER in regulating female reproductive diseases. Nevertheless, our current understanding of ERs expression and function in ovarian disease is, however, incomplete. To elucidate the biological mechanism behind ERs in the ovary, this review will focus on the role of ERα and ERβ in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), ovarian cancer and premature ovarian failure (POF) and discuss the major challenges of existing therapies to provide a reference for the treatment of estrogen target tissue ovarian diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Ling Xu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Zheng-Yuan Huang
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kun Yu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, China
- *Correspondence: Xiang-Wei Fu, ; Shou-Long Deng, ; Jun Li,
| | - Xiang-Wei Fu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Beijing Key Laboratory for Animal Genetic Improvement, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Xiang-Wei Fu, ; Shou-Long Deng, ; Jun Li,
| | - Shou-Long Deng
- National Health Commission of China (NHC) Key Laboratory of Human Disease Comparative Medicine, Institute of Laboratory Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Comparative Medicine Center, Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Xiang-Wei Fu, ; Shou-Long Deng, ; Jun Li,
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Effects of the Fertility Drugs Clomiphene Citrate and Letrozole on Kiss-1 Expression in Hypothalamic Kiss-1-Expressing Cell Models. Reprod Sci 2020; 27:806-814. [PMID: 32006244 DOI: 10.1007/s43032-020-00154-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Clomiphene citrate (CC) and letrozole stimulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis and are used widely as oral fertility drugs to induce folliculogenesis. We examined whether these drugs increase Kiss-1 expression in hypothalamic cell models. We utilized two hypothalamic cell models, mHypoA-50 and mHypoA-55, which originated from Kiss-1 neurons in the anteroventral periventricular (AVPV) nucleus and arcuate (ARC) nucleus of the mouse hypothalamus, respectively. The cells were stimulated with CC or letrozole, after which Kiss-1 mRNA expression was determined. CC stimulated Kiss-1 gene expression in mHypoA-50 and mHypoA-55 cells. The basal expression of Kiss-1 was significantly increased in the presence of estradiol (E2) in mHypoA-50 cells, and the CC-induced increase in Kiss-1 expression was not observed in the presence of E2 in these cells. In contrast, E2 did not modify the basal expression of Kiss-1 in mHypoA-55 cells, and CC-induced Kiss-1 expression was still observed in the presence of E2. The significant increase in Kiss-1 gene expression in mHypoA-50 and mHypoA-55 cells was blunted in the presence of estrogen receptor antagonists. Aromatase was expressed in mHypoA-50 and mHypoA-55 cells. Letrozole, an aromatase inhibitor, increased Kiss-1 expression in mHypoA-55 ARC cells but not in mHypoA-50 AVPV cells. Although the basal expression of Kiss-1 was increased by E2, letrozole did not modulate Kiss-1 expression in mHypoA-50 cells. Letrozole-induced Kiss-1 gene expression in mHypoA-55 cells was not modulated in the presence of E2. The fertility drugs CC and letrozole modulated Kiss-1 expression in hypothalamic cell models.
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Abstract
Medications to stimulate the ovaries may be used to induce ovulation in patients with anovulatory infertility or to hyperstimulate the ovaries in a controlled fashion in ovulatory patients as part of assisted reproductive treatments (ART). The pharmacology of all current major medications used to stimulate ovarian function is reviewed in this article, including letrozole, clomiphene citrate, gonadotropins, and pulsatile gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). Novel potential compounds and adjuvant treatment approaches are also discussed, such as kisspeptin agonists and androgens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Quaas
- University Hospital, University of Basel, Clinic for Reproductive Medicine and Gynecologic Endocrinology, Basel, Switzerland; Reproductive Partners San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA; Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA.
| | - Richard S Legro
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Penn State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, USA
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Usadi RS, Merriam KS. On-label and off-label drug use in the treatment of female infertility. Fertil Steril 2015; 103:583-94. [PMID: 25660647 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Female infertility affects millions of couples worldwide and is estimated to account for one-third of all cases of infertility. The purpose of this article is to review the uses of both off-label treatments and those approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for female infertility, by examining the mechanism of action, the side-effect profile, fetal anomaly risks, and contraindications for the various drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca S Usadi
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Carolinas Medical Center, Charlotte, North Carolina
| | - Kathryn S Merriam
- Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Carolinas Medical Center, Charlotte, North Carolina.
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Nakagawa K, Kaneyama M, Nishi Y, Sugiyama R, Motoyama H, Sugiyama R. Clomiphene citrate affects the receptivity of the uterine endometrium. Reprod Med Biol 2014; 14:73-78. [PMID: 29259405 DOI: 10.1007/s12522-014-0195-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To investigate whether clomiphene citrate (CC) affects uterine receptivity or not, we evaluated pregnancy rates (PR) during the hormone replacement cycle (HRC) according to the period between the last day of CC administration and the day of embryo transfer (ET). Methods From March 2008 through March 2010, a total of 378 treatment cycles among 378 patients who received CC and had to avoid fresh ET due to a thin uterine endometrium were recruited. All patients underwent thawed ET using HRC. PRs were evaluated according to the period between the last CC treatment and the day of ET. Results PR for the groups in which the period between the last CC treatment and the day of ET increased to more than 91 days were significantly higher than that for group in which the period was less than 90 days (p < 0.05). Conclusions A lower PR was shown by the patients who underwent thawed ET in the HRC within 90 days after their last CC treatment, which shows that CC affects the receptivity of the uterine endometrium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Nakagawa
- Division of Reproductive Medicine Sugiyama Clinic 1-53-1, Ohara 156-0041 Tokyo Setagaya Japan
| | - Masayo Kaneyama
- Division of Reproductive Medicine Sugiyama Clinic 1-53-1, Ohara 156-0041 Tokyo Setagaya Japan
| | - Yayoi Nishi
- Division of Reproductive Medicine Sugiyama Clinic 1-53-1, Ohara 156-0041 Tokyo Setagaya Japan
| | - Rie Sugiyama
- Center for Reproductive Medicine and Endoscopy Sugiyama Clinic Tokyo Marunouchi Japan
| | - Hiroshi Motoyama
- Center for Reproductive Medicine and Endoscopy Sugiyama Clinic Tokyo Marunouchi Japan
| | - Rikikazu Sugiyama
- Division of Reproductive Medicine Sugiyama Clinic 1-53-1, Ohara 156-0041 Tokyo Setagaya Japan
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Chaube SK, Shrivastav TG, Prasad S, Tiwari M, Tripathi A, Pandey AN, Premkumar KV. Clomiphene Citrate Induces ROS-Mediated Apoptosis in Mammalian Oocytes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.4236/ojapo.2014.33006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Chaube SK, Prasad PV, Tripathi V, Shrivastav TG. Clomiphene citrate inhibits gonadotropin-induced ovulation by reducing cyclic adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate and prostaglandin E2 levels in rat ovary. Fertil Steril 2006; 86:1106-11. [PMID: 16962119 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2006.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2005] [Revised: 03/03/2006] [Accepted: 03/03/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether clomiphene citrate (CC) inhibited gonadotropin-induced ovulation by reducing cyclic adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels in ovary. If so, to determine whether E2 coadministration could protect against these effects of CC. DESIGN A controlled prospective study. SETTING Laboratory research setting in the department of reproductive biomedicine at a national research institute in India. ANIMAL(S) Sixty sexually immature female rats that were 24-25 days of age. INTERVENTION(S) The sexually immature female rats were given a single injection (10 IU i.m.) of pregnant mare serum gonadotropin. After 48 hours, the rats were given single injections of hCG (10 IU) along with CC, with or without E2, for 16 hours. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Number of superovulated COCs, ovary and uterus weight, FSH and LH levels in serum, and cAMP and PGE2 levels in ovary. RESULT(S) The superovulatory dose of gonadotropins significantly increased ovary and uterus weights, cAMP and PGE2 levels in ovary, and serum levels of FSH and LH. Coadministration of CC (10 mg/kg body weight) significantly reduced levels of cAMP, PGE2 in the ovary, ovary and uterus weights, and ovulation rate, whereas FSH and LH levels were not significantly altered. Supplementation of E2 protected against these inhibitory effects of CC and augmented levels of FSH and LH in serum. CONCLUSION(S) Clomiphene citrate inhibited gonadotropin-induced ovulation by reducing cAMP and PGE2 levels in the ovary, and E2 protected against these effects of CC on gonadotropin-induced ovulation in rat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shail K Chaube
- Department of Reproductive Biomedicine, National Institute of Health and Family Welfare, Munirka, New Delhi, India
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Moll E, Bossuyt PMM, Korevaar JC, Lambalk CB, van der Veen F. Effect of clomifene citrate plus metformin and clomifene citrate plus placebo on induction of ovulation in women with newly diagnosed polycystic ovary syndrome: randomised double blind clinical trial. BMJ 2006; 332:1485. [PMID: 16769748 PMCID: PMC1482338 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.38867.631551.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the effectiveness of clomifene citrate plus metformin and clomifene citrate plus placebo in women with newly diagnosed polycystic ovary syndrome. DESIGN Randomised clinical trial. SETTING Multicentre trial in 20 Dutch hospitals. PARTICIPANTS 228 women with polycystic ovary syndrome. INTERVENTIONS Clomifene citrate plus metformin or clomifene citrate plus placebo. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE The primary outcome measure was ovulation. Secondary outcome measures were ongoing pregnancy, spontaneous abortion, and clomifene resistance. RESULTS 111 women were allocated to clomifene citrate plus metformin (metformin group) and 114 women were allocated to clomifene citrate plus placebo (placebo group). The ovulation rate in the metformin group was 64% compared with 72% in the placebo group, a non-significant difference (risk difference - 8%, 95% confidence interval - 20% to 4%). There were no significant differences in either rate of ongoing pregnancy (40% v 46%; - 6%, - 20% to 7%) or rate of spontaneous abortion (12% v 11%; 1%, - 7% to 10%). A significantly larger proportion of women in the metformin group discontinued treatment because of side effects (16% v 5%; 11%, 5% to 16%). CONCLUSION Metformin is not an effective addition to clomifene citrate as the primary method of inducing ovulation in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. TRIAL REGISTRATION Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN55906981 [controlled-trials.com].
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Affiliation(s)
- Etelka Moll
- Centre for Reproductive Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Academic Medical Centre, PO Box 22700, 1100 DE, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
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Yilmaz B, Kelekci S, Savan K, Oral H, Mollamahmutoglu L. Addition of human chorionic gonadotropin to clomiphene citrate ovulation induction therapy does not improve pregnancy outcomes and luteal function. Fertil Steril 2006; 85:783-6. [PMID: 16500364 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2005.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2004] [Revised: 09/05/2005] [Accepted: 09/05/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In a randomized prospective study, 125 women with World Health Organization class II anovulation received 50 mg of clomiphene citrate alone (group A, n = 65) or 50 mg of clomiphene citrate plus hCG (group B, n = 60) in a total of 125 cycles during natural intercourse-advised cycles. There were no statistically significant differences between groups regarding pregnancy outcomes and midluteal P levels, but luteal phase length was longer in group A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bulent Yilmaz
- Department of Reproductive Endocrinology, Zekai Tahir Burak Women's Health Education and Research Hospital, Ankara, Turkey.
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Chaube SK, Prasad PV, Thakur SC, Shrivastav TG. Estradiol protects clomiphene citrate–induced apoptosis in ovarian follicular cells and ovulated cumulus–oocyte complexes. Fertil Steril 2005; 84 Suppl 2:1163-72. [PMID: 16210008 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2005.03.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2004] [Revised: 03/25/2005] [Accepted: 03/25/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether clomiphene citrate (CC) reduces E(2) level in the ovary and circulation and induces apoptosis in ovarian follicular cells and ovulated cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs). If yes, to determine whether E(2) coadministration could protect against these adverse effects of CC. DESIGN A controlled prospective study. SETTING Laboratory research setting. ANIMAL(S) Ninety sexually immature female rats that were 24-25 days of age. INTERVENTION(S) The immature female rats were injected with a single dose of 10 IU of pregnant mare serum gonadotropin. After 48 hours, 10 IU of hCG along with 10 mg of CC per kilogram of body weight, with or without 2.0 mg of E2 per kilogram of body weight were coadministered. After 16 hrs, the rats were killed; COCs were collected from oviduct and ovaries were isolated. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Number of superovulated COCs, oocyte morphology, E2 level in ovary and serum, histology of ovary, DNA fragmentation, and bax protein expression in ovary and COCs. RESULT(S) The number of COCs and E2 level in ovary and serum were reduced, whereas membrane blebbing in oocytes, bax protein expression, and DNA fragmentation in ovarian follicular cells and ovulated COCs were induced after CC treatment. These adverse effects of CC were protected against if animals were coadministered with E2. CONCLUSION(S) Clomiphene citrate-induced apoptosis in ovarian follicular cells (probably granulosa cells), thereby reducing E2 level in ovary and circulation that might have resulted in poor development and maturation of oocytes leading to reduced ovulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shail K Chaube
- Department of Reproductive Biomedicine, National Institute of Health and Family Welfare, New Delhi, India.
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Symposium. Evidence based management of anovulation. HUM FERTIL 2004; 7:183-208. [PMID: 15590572 DOI: 10.1080/14647270400006895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Stouffer RL, Zelinski-Wooten MB. Overriding follicle selection in controlled ovarian stimulation protocols: quality vs quantity. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2004; 2:32. [PMID: 15200679 PMCID: PMC442134 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7827-2-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2004] [Accepted: 06/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Selection of the species-specific number of follicles that will develop and ovulate during the ovarian cycle can be overridden by increasing the levels of pituitary gonadotropin hormones, FSH and LH. During controlled ovarian stimulation (COS) in nonhuman primates for assisted reproductive technology (ART) protocols, the method of choice (but not the only method) has been the administration of exogenous gonadotropins, either of nonprimate or primate origin. Due to species-specificity of the primate LH (but not FSH) receptor, COS with nonprimate (e.g., PMSG) hormones can be attributed to their FSH activity. Elevated levels of FSH alone will produce large antral follicles containing oocytes capable of fertilization in vitro (IVF). However, there is evidence that LH, probably in lesser amounts, increases the rate of follicular development, reduces heterogeneity of the antral follicle pool, and improves the viability and rate of pre-implantation development of IVF-produced embryos. Since an endogenous LH surge typically does not occur during COS cycles (especially when a GnRH antagonist is added), a large dose of an LH-like hormone (i.e., hCG) may be given to reinitiate meiosis and produce fertilizable oocytes. Alternate approaches using exogenous LH (or FSH), or GnRH agonist to induce an endogenous LH surge, have received lesser attention. Current protocols will routinely yield dozens of large follicles with fertilizable eggs. However, limitations include non/poor-responding animals, heterogeneity of follicles (and presumably oocytes) and subsequent short luteal phases (limiting embryo transfer in COS cycles). However, the most serious limitation to further improvements and expanded use of COS protocols for ART is the lack of availability of nonhuman primate gonadotropins. Human, and even more so, nonprimate gonadotropins are antigenic in monkeys, which limits the number of COS cycles to as few as 1 (PMSG) or 3 (recombinant hCG) protocols in macaques. Production and access to sufficient supplies of nonhuman primate FSH, LH and CG would overcome this major hurdle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Stouffer
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
| | - Mary B Zelinski-Wooten
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, USA
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