Factors affecting sperm motility. VII. Sperm viability as affected by change of pH and osmolarity of semen and urine specimens

Recuperación de espermatozoides de la orina en hombres con eyaculación retrógrada

Introducción

La eyaculación retrógrada (ER) es la ausencia total o parcial de emisión del esperma, con la consecuente derivación del semen hacia la vejiga durante la fase de emisión de la eyaculación. Existe un grupo de pacientes en los que la evaluación del eyaculado no es suficiente para su detección. Y, en ocasiones, va a ser necesario recurrir a la utilización de métodos invasivos como la extracción de fluido epididimario, o la biopsia testicular para tratar su infertilidad.

Contenido

El documento define la ER, y los métodos para su diagnóstico. También aborda la detección de espermatozoides en la orina poseyaculado (OPE), la preparación y recuperación de espermatozoides de la orina, y su uso posterior en técnicas de reproducción asistida.

Resumen

El diagnóstico de ER se basa en la detección de espermatozoides en OPE en pacientes con aspermia o con oligozoospermia y volumen seminal bajo o normal. Aunque la presencia de espermatozoides en OPE podría considerarse por sí misma diagnóstica de ER, existe una falta de consenso en cuanto a definir exactamente los criterios diagnósticos y son muy pocos los estudios que los describen. Un correcto diagnóstico de la ER permite utilizar OPE para la obtención de espermatozoides y su posterior uso en técnicas de reproducción humana asistida, evitando técnicas invasivas.

Perspectivas

Un importante número de pacientes con ER puede permanecer sin diagnosticar. Por ello, es fundamental realizar el estudio de ER en pacientes con sospecha, mediante el estudio de la OPE, siendo necesaria una adecuada interpretación de los resultados para su correcto diagnóstico.

Sperm recovery from urine in men with retrograde ejaculation

Introduction

Retrograde ejaculation (RE) consists of the reflux backwards, towards the bladder, of the ejaculate, during the emission phase of ejaculation, causing a total or partial absence of sperm emission, with the consequent diversion of semen into the bladder during the emission phase of ejaculation. Evaluating the ejaculate may not be sufficient for identifying RE in some patients. Hence, the management of infertility may involve the use of invasive methods such as epididymal fluid retrieval or testicular biopsy.

Content

This paper defines RE and methods for its diagnosis. A description is also provided of the techniques used for the detection of sperm in post-ejaculatory urine (PEU), the preparation and retrieval of sperm from urine and their subsequent use in assisted reproductive techniques.

Summary

The diagnosis of RE is based on the detection of spermatozoa in PEU in patients with aspermia or oligozoospermia and low or normal seminal volume. Although the presence of sperm in PEU could be sufficient for a diagnosis of RE, there is a lack of consensus regarding the diagnostic criteria for PEU, and the literature available is very limited. A correct diagnosis of RE allows the use of PEU for recovering sperm and its subsequent use in assisted human reproduction techniques, thus avoiding invasive techniques.

Outlook

A significant number of patients with RE may remain undiagnosed. Therefore, it is essential to conduct an RE study in patients with suspicion, through the analysis of PEU, and to properly interpret the results for accurate diagnosis.

Manipulation of metabolism to improve liquid preservation of mammalian spermatozoa

Reproductive success in mammals hinges on the ability of sperm to generate sufficient energy through cellular metabolism to perform the energy-intensive processes required for fertilisation, including motility, maturation, and oocyte interactions. It is now widely accepted that sperm exhibit metabolic flexibility, utilising a combination of glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation (supported by the Krebs cycle and other complementary pathways) to meet their energy demands. However, the preferred pathway for energy production varies significantly among species, making it challenging to map species-specific metabolic strategies, particularly in species with high metabolic flexibility, like the ram. Additionally, differences in methodologies used to measure metabolism have led to biased interpretations of species' metabolic strategies, complicating the development of liquid storage methods aimed at preserving spermatozoa by manipulating energy generation based on species-specific requirements. This review examines sperm energy requirements, current methods for assessing metabolic capacity, and the current research on species-specific metabolism. Future research should focus on establishing a standardised approach for determining metabolic preferences to accurately map species-specific strategies, a critical step before developing effective liquid preservation methods. By identifying species-specific regulatory points, strategies can be designed to temporarily inhibit metabolic pathways, conserving resources and reducing the accumulation of metabolic by-products. Alternatively, supplementation with depleted metabolites can be guided by understanding areas of excessive consumption during prolonged metabolism. Applying this knowledge to develop tailored preservation techniques will help minimise sperm damage and improve survival during in vitro processing and liquid storage, ultimately enhancing the success of artificial breeding programs.

Post-cooling sperm processing can rescue sperm quality of cooled-stored stallion semen

Poor sperm quality in cooled-shipped semen has been related to subpar fertility in horses. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the ability of post-cooling sperm processing to improve sperm parameters of cooled-stored stallion semen for artificial insemination. For all experiments, ejaculates were collected, processed, and diluted in skimmed milk-based (SM) medium and stored at 5 °C/24h. In all experiments an aliquot of unprocessed cooled semen was used as a control. In the first experiment (Exp 1.), cooled-stored semen from 16 stallions (n = 32) was processed by SpermFilter or centrifugation (600×g/10min) and resuspended in an egg yolk-based freezing medium containing permeating cryoprotectants (EY-C) for cryopreservation. Sperm recovery and motility parameters were immediately assessed after sperm resuspension in both groups and compared with unprocessed (Unp) samples. In Exp 2., cooled semen samples from six stallions (n = 18) were processed using SpermFilter and resuspended in SM or EY-C. Motility parameters and plasma membrane integrity were assessed in all groups (Unp, SM, and EY-C). In Exp 3, cooled semen from four stallions (n = 20) was processed by SpermFilter, resuspended in SM, EY-C, or egg yolk-based medium without cryoprotectants (EY-nC); and submitted to a thermoresistance test (37 °C/3h). Motility parameters, plasma membrane integrity and stability, mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondrial superoxide generation, and DNA fragmentation index were evaluated in all groups. Finally, in Exp 4, 39 estrous cycles of 11 mares were inseminated with unprocessed (n = 6) cooled-stored semen or semen cooled at 5 °C/24h and then processed by SpermFilter and resuspended in SM (n = 5), EY-C (n = 11), EY-nC (n = 11), or centrifuged and resuspended in EY-C (n = 6). Overall, semen processing and resuspension in EY mediums (EY-C and EY-nC) improved sperm parameters compared with those of unprocessed semen (P < 0.05). Centrifugation (91 ± 5 %) recovered more sperm than SpermFilter (84 ± 9 %; P < 0.05). Sperm resuspended in EY-nC maintained better sperm parameters throughout the thermoresistance test than those in the other groups (P < 0.05). The fertility rates were similar between all groups (P > 0.05). In conclusion, processing and resuspension in EY medium can improve sperm parameters in post-cooled-stored stallion semen.

Purification and partial characterization of a sperm motility-inhibitory protein of ram cauda epididymal plasma

Mammalian sperm remain quiescent but fertile for several weeks in cauda epididymis. Although several sperm quiescent factors of epididymal plasma have been identified in goat, pig and cattle; however, little is known in sheep. In the present study, purification and characterization of a novel sperm quiescent protein of ovine cauda epididymal plasma (CEP) was carried out. The sperm quiescent protein was partially purified by hydroxyapatite gel adsorption chromatography followed by DEAE-sepharose® anion exchange chromatography. In the latter, the sperm quiescent activity was eluted both in 0.05 and 0.2 M potassium phosphate buffer (pH 7.5) fractions having a predominant protein of about 80 and 70 kDa with 87% and 63% homogeneity, respectively. The proteins were designated as motility-inhibitory factor of sheep I and II (MIFS-I and II), respectively. Significant (about 60%) inhibition of sperm motility was observed following treatment of cauda epididymal sperm with 6 and 12 µg/mL of partially purified MIFS-I and II, respectively. Specific activities of the partially purified MIFS-I and II were 563 and 261 U/mg of protein, while the fold-purification of the activity were 5119 and 2373, respectively. Both the proteins were heat-labile and the activity was completely lost following incubation at 100°C for 5 min. Further, the partially purified MIFS-I (5 µg/mL) caused significant reduction in in vitro sperm capacitation and slight decline in tyrosine phosphorylated p72 and p52 proteins; however the protein was nontoxic to sperm. Mass spectrometric analysis of MIFS-I revealed significant identity with human semaphorin 3D. Both dot blot and western blot analysis demonstrated cross-reactivity of MIFS-I with polyclonal anti-human SEMA3D antibody. It was concluded that the MIFS-I of ovine CEP was putative ovine semaphorin 3D protein having potent sperm quiescent and decapacitating activities and it possibly acts through inhibition of protein tyrosine phosphorylation.

Elaboration of massage technique for semen collection and examination of semen characteristics in chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera)

The practice of artificial insemination for the long-tailed chinchilla has not been fully elaborated to date, and existing data available regarding their reproduction properties is contradictory. Until now, the collection of semen for chinchillas has been most-commonly obtained using electro-ejaculation methods exclusively. The primary objective of this study was the development of a manual technique for semen collection which meets all animal welfare requirements. An additional aim was to determine the basic spermatological parameters, such as motility, concentration, type and ratio of morphological abnormalities and live/dead cell ratio, under typical northern-hemisphere conditions, in Hungary. Over a 3 month period, a special massage technique was developed for the study, and using this method, the sperm parameters of 46 males were subsequently analyzed weekly for a period of one year. Approximately 66% of chinchillas responded positively to this technique, with the success rate of semen-collection attempts showing no variation between seasons. Average sperm concentration for the whole year was 935.17 million/ml using this method. Total cell motility was the highest in winter (90.3%), and the lowest in spring (84.3%). The proportion of live, intact cells were above 80% on average for the year, while the ratios of live, morphologically abnormal and dead cells were 6% and 14%, respectively. We found that midpiece abnormalities occurred in the highest proportion (0.95%-3.38%), while the head abnormalities showed the lowest ratio (0.01%-0.15%). Standard deviation among the parameters was relatively high, with the spring season proving to be the weakest in terms of sperm quality. This study has demonstrated that, semen can be successfully collected without the use of electro-ejaculation or anesthesia. Furthermore, although spermatological parameters do exhibit some fluctuation for the different times of the year, semen collected is nonetheless suitable for the purpose of artificial insemination of chinchillas at any time.

Motility Assessment of Ram Spermatozoa

For successful fertilisation to occur, spermatozoa need to successfully migrate through the female reproductive tract and penetrate the oocyte. Predictably, poor sperm motility has been associated with low rates of fertilisation in many mammalian species, including the ram. As such, motility is one of the most important parameters used for in vitro evaluation of ram sperm quality and function. This review aims to outline the mechanical and energetic processes which underpin sperm motility, describe changes in motility which occur as a result of differences in sperm structure and the surrounding microenvironment, and assess the effectiveness of the various methods used to assess sperm motility in rams. Methods of subjective motility estimation are convenient, inexpensive methods widely used in the livestock industries, however, the subjective nature of these methods can make them unreliable. Computer-assisted sperm analysis (CASA) technology accurately and objectively measures sperm motility via two-dimensional tracing of sperm head motion, making it a popular method for sperm quality assurance in domesticated animal production laboratories. Newly developed methods of motility assessment including flagellar tracing, three-dimensional sperm tracing, in vivo motility assessment, and molecular assays which quantify motility-associated biomarkers, enable analysis of a new range of sperm motion parameters with the potential to reveal new mechanistic insights and improve ram semen assessment. Experimental application of these technologies is required to fully understand their potential to improve semen quality assessment and prediction of reproductive success in ovine artificial breeding programs.

Extend the Survival of Human Sperm In Vitro in Non-Freezing Conditions: Damage Mechanisms, Preservation Technologies, and Clinical Applications

Preservation of human spermatozoa in vitro at normothermia or hypothermia maintaining their functions and fertility for several days plays a significant role in reproductive biology and medicine. However, it is well known that human spermatozoa left in vitro deteriorate over time irreversibly as the consequence of various stresses such as the change of osmolarity, energy deficiency, and oxidative damage, leading to substantial limitations including the need for semen examinations, fertility preservation, and assisted reproductive technology. These problems may be addressed with the aid of non-freezing storage techniques. The main and most effective preservation strategies are the partial or total replacement of seminal plasma with culture medium, named as extenders, and temperature-induced metabolic restriction. Semen extenders consist of buffers, osmolytes, and antioxidants, etc. to protect spermatozoa against the above-mentioned adverse factors. Extended preservation of human spermatozoa in vitro has a negative effect on sperm parameters, whereas its effect on ART outcomes remains inconsistent. The storage duration, temperature, and pre-treatment of semen should be determined according to the aims of preservation. Advanced techniques such as nanotechnology and omics have been introduced and show great potential in the lifespan extension of human sperm. It is certain that more patients will benefit from it in the near future. This review provided an overview of the current knowledge and prospects of prolonged non-freezing storage of human sperm in vitro.

A Comprehensive Guide to Sperm Recovery in Infertile Men with Retrograde Ejaculation

Retrograde ejaculation (RE) is a condition defined as the backward flow of the semen during ejaculation, and when present can result in male infertility. RE may be partial or complete, resulting in either low seminal volume or complete absence of the ejaculate (dry ejaculate). RE can result from anatomic, neurological or pharmacological conditions. The treatment approaches outlined are determined by the cause. Alkalinizing urinary pH with oral medications or by adding sperm wash media into the bladder prior to ejaculation may preserve the viability of the sperm. This article provides a step-by-step guide to diagnose RE and the optimal techniques to retrieve sperm.

A Comparative Analysis of the Altered Levels of Human Seminal Plasma Constituents as Contributing Factors in Different Types of Male Infertility

(1) Background: The relationships between the biochemical and immunological components in seminal plasma and their physiological effects on male reproductive system have been underreported. In this study, we evaluated the potential of several seminal plasma biochemical and immunological markers in the pathophysiological developments of the infertile male patients. The study was designed to identify and assess different markers that may be associated with semen functions in different types of male infertility. (2) Methods: A total of 50 infertile male patients who underwent checkup for fertility assessment and 50 fertile controls were included in this study. The complete medical history of each recruited participant was reviewed. The infertile sub-groups (non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA), asthenozoospermia (AS), normozoospermic infertile (NI), and oligozoospermia (OZ)) were characterized based on sperm motility and concentration, while NI patients were included after a thorough check up of their female partners as well. We investigated each sample for 21 different analytes, enzymes, trace elements, and immunological markers to find crucial markers posing as contributing factors to a specific type of male infertility. (3) Results: The levels of 15 out of 21 markers, assayed from the seminal plasma of infertile males, were significantly altered in comparison to fertile controls (p < 0.05). For the first time, microprotein levels were also analyzed. The presence of monocytes, lymphocytes, and granulocytes was limited to semen from NOA patients, while a significant increase in the level of platelets was observed in AS. Hierarchical clustering and ROC-AUC analysis identified the three most significant markers (zinc, LDH, and TG) for the healthy control group and asthenozoospermic group (AUC, of 0.92 and 0.81, respectively). (4) Conclusions: The altered levels of biochemical and immunological markers in seminal plasma might be associated with the different male infertility profiles and could be required for the sperm metabolism and maintenance. However, a larger sample size and follow up analysis is required for establishing the hypothesized panel of markers as biomarkers at clinical stage.

Semen pH and its correlation with motility and count - A study in subfertile men

OBJECTIVE

The current study was aimed at correlating semen pH with motility and count to understand the significance of semen buffering system.

METHODS

The semen samples were collected from men who visited the clinic with infertility problems. Determination of semen pH, sperm motility and count were done according to the WHO laboratory manual, 2010 standards. The Mann-Whitney U-test was applied for statistical significance. The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient was used to measure the degree of linear relationship between the semen parameters.

RESULT

For all patients (n=310) the mean±SD pH was found to be 8.4±0.3, with a range from 6.9 to 9.5. There was a significant and positive correlation between total motility and pH r =0.0591 (p<0.00001); volume and pH r=0.0582 (p<0.00001); Sluggish Progressive Motility (SPM) and pH, r = 0.0529 (p<0.00001); Abstinence and pH, r=0.0016 (p<0.00001). Negative correlation was noted between pH and total count r= -0.025 (p<0.00001); Rapid Progressive Motility (RPM) and pH r = -0.0776 (p<0.001), Non Motile (NM) spermatozoa and pH r=- 0.00132 (p<0.00001).

CONCLUSION

There were correlations between seminal pH and two important fertility parameters, viz., motility and count, indicating that the semen buffering system plays a vital role in maintaining the overall seminal quality, which is of clinical relevance.

The Potential Relationship Between Different Human Female Reproductive Disorders and Sperm Quality in Female Genital Tract

Spermatozoa should travel throughout the female reproductive tract to reach its ultimate goal, fertilization of the oocyte. At the ejaculation moment, millions of sperm within a few milliliters of the ejaculate are deposited at the cranial segment of vagina and make their journey to the fertilization site. This is done by means of various factors, such as sperm motility, the uterine and fallopian tubes contractility, and the ciliary movement of the lining cells. During this migration, spermatozoa interact with the female microenvironment both physically and molecularly. In this regard, the quality of the environmental conditions may affect this interaction. Therefore, some alterations in women's genital tract microenvironment, such as conditions that occur in female reproductive disorders, may have detrimental effects on sperm reproductive function. In this review, human sperm migration through the female tract is described, and the potential effects of different reproductive disorders at reproductive organs, such as vagina, uterine cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovary on sperm survival and quality, are also argued. The understanding of those conditions that may impair sperm fertility in the female genital tract can provide a more accurate diagnosis of the causes of infertility in couples. This can ultimately lead to the discovery of effective treatment approaches.

Hypotonic challenge reduces human sperm motility through coiling and folding of the tail

Human ejaculates collected for in vitro procedures show variably rapid increases in osmolality, depending on enzymatic degradation of compounds. Changes in osmolality can affect cell functions due to the energy consuming processes needed to control cell volume. The aim was to examine the effects of a hypotonic challenge for spermatozoa exposed to increased osmolality. Spermatozoa were selected by density gradient centrifugation and washed in media with different osmolalities. Osmolality was measured by freezing‐point depression and sperm velocities by CASA. Swimming pattern observations and assessments of tail morphology of fixed spermatozoa were done with phase contrast microscopy. Increased osmolality did not change the curvilinear velocity (VCL), while decreased osmolality reduced or abolished VCL nonreversibly. For spermatozoa first exposed to 400 mOsm/kg, reversal of osmolality to 290 mOsm/kg reduced the VCL and the average path velocity (VAP) permanently. Hypotonic challenges increased sperm tail coiling and folding in a dose‐response pattern. Spermatozoa once adjusted to high osmolality in the liquefied ejaculate are likely to suffer if exposed to a medium with a lower osmolality. For improved success of Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART), it appears to be important to minimise the duration of sperm exposure to the ejaculate, by early dilution or sperm preparation.

Assessment of Oligo-Chitosan Biocompatibility toward Human Spermatozoa

The many interesting properties of chitosan polysaccharides have prompted their extensive use as biomaterial building blocks, for instance as antimicrobial coatings, tissue engineering scaffolds, and drug delivery vehicles. The translation of these chitosan-based systems to the clinic still requires a deeper understanding of their safety profiles. For instance, the widespread claim that chitosans are spermicidal is supported by little to no data. Herein, we thoroughly investigate whether chitosan oligomer (CO) molecules can impact the functional and structural features of human spermatozoa. By using a large number of primary sperm cell samples and by isolating the effect of chitosan from the effect of sperm dissolution buffer, we provide the first realistic and complete picture of the effect of chitosans on sperms. We found that CO binds to cell surfaces or/and is internalized by cells and affected the average path velocity of the spermatozoa, in a dose-dependent manner. However, CO did not affect the progressive motility, motility, or sperm morphology, nor did it cause loss of plasma membrane integrity, reactive oxygen species production, or DNA damage. A decrease in spermatozoa adenosine triphosphate levels, which was especially significant at higher CO concentrations, points to possible interference of CO with mitochondrial functions or the glycolysis processes. With this first complete and in-depth look at the spermicidal activities of chitosans, we complement the complex picture of the safety profile of chitosans and inform on further use of chitosans in biomedical applications.

In vitro release testing methods for drug-releasing vaginal rings

Drug-releasing vaginal rings are torus-shaped devices, generally fabricated from thermoplastic polymers or silicone elastomers, used to administer pharmaceutical drugs to the human vagina for periods typically ranging from three weeks to twelve months. One of the most important product performance tests for vaginal rings is the in vitro release test. Although it has been fifty years since a vaginal ring device was first described in the scientific literature, and despite seven drug-releasing vaginal rings having been approved for market, there is no universally accepted method for testing in vitro drug release, and only one non-compendial shaking incubator method (for the estradiol-releasing ring Estring®) is described in the US Food and Drug Administration's Dissolution Methods Database. Here, for the first time, we critically review the diverse range of test methods that have been described in the scientific literature for testing in vitro release of drug-releasing vaginal rings. Issues around in vitro-in vivo correlation and modelling of in vitro release data are also discussed.

Assessment and preservation of liquid and frozen-thawed Black crested mangabey (Lophocebus aterrimus) spermatozoa obtained by transrectal ultrasonic-guided massage of the accessory sex glands and electroejaculation

The Black Crested Mangabey (Lophocebus aterrimus) is an African monkey listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN and in captivity the population is limited to 34 males. The aim of this study was to evaluate two Black Crested Mangabey males, maintained in captivity in a zoological garden and suspected of infertility, with a complete examination of their genital tract using ultrasonography, followed by recovery of semen using transrectal ultrasonic massage of the accessory sexual glands (TUMASG) and electroejaculation. One male had small testicular and accessory sex gland sizes indicative of senile hypoplasia. The other male was suspected of infertility. Four semen samples were obtained. Fresh semen was initially evaluated, diluted in Refrigeration Medium Test Yolk buffer, cooled at 15 °C and cryopreserved. Endocrine profiles (testosterone, oestradiol, FSH, LH, cortisol), prostatic specific antigen and semen variables (volume, concentration, motility by CASA, viability and acrosome status using flow cytometry, morphology, morphometry utilising TEM) were evaluated in raw, cooled and cryopreserved samples. There was no detrimental effect of cooling or cryopreservation on sperm viability and acrosomal integrity. Similar percentages of viable and acrosome-intact spermatozoa were present in cooled (for 6 h) and frozen-thawed semen samples (75.1% compared with 69.0%, P > 0.05), while progressive motility was greater in cooled, compared with frozen-thawed samples (81.5% compared with 67.3%). This study was the first in which there was evaluation of sperm variables in this species and, although this study is limited by the number of animals it provides background information for further studies using assisted reproductive technologies.

Onion peel extract and its constituent, quercetin inhibits human Slo3 in a pH and calcium dependent manner

Sperm function and male fertility are closely related to pH dependent K⁺ current (KSper) in human sperm, which is most likely composed of Slo3 and its auxiliary subunit leucine-rich repeat-containing protein 52 (LRRC52). Onion peel extract (OPE) and its major active ingredient quercetin are widely used as fertility enhancers; however, the effect of OPE and quercetin on Slo3 has not been elucidated. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of quercetin on human Slo3 channels. Human Slo3 and LRRC52 were co-transfected into HEK293 cells and pharmacological properties were studied with the whole cell patch clamp technique. We successfully expressed and measured pH sensitive and calcium insensitive Slo3 currents in HEK293 cells. We found that OPE and its key ingredient quercetin inhibit Slo3 currents. Inhibition by quercetin is dose dependent and this degree of inhibition decreases with elevating internal alkalization and internal free calcium concentrations. Functional moieties in the quercetin polyphenolic ring govern the degree of inhibition of Slo3 by quercetin, and the composition of such functional moieties are sensitive to the pH of the medium. These results suggest that quercetin inhibits Slo3 in a pH and calcium dependent manner. Therefore, we surmise that quercetin induced depolarization in spermatozoa may enhance the voltage gated proton channel (Hv1), and activate non-selective cation channels of sperm (CatSper) dependent calcium influx to trigger sperm capacitation and acrosome reaction.

Post-ejaculatory increase in human semen osmolality in vitro

Spermatozoa prepared in vitro for assisted reproductive technology (ART) encounter other challenges than in vivo. One could be to survive and function despite varying extracellular osmolality. There is a lack of consistent knowledge of human semen osmolality and changes after liquefaction. The aim of this study was to investigate changes in semen osmolality that may occur in vitro after ejaculation and during sperm handling for ART. Osmolality was measured in 86 semen samples by freezing-point depression during storage in vitro at various times and temperatures. The freezing-point depression method was robust and reliable for measuring the osmolality of whole semen as shown by a low variability between repeats. At ejaculation, the osmolality was isotonic to cervical mucus and body fluids. There was a marked increase in osmolality after liquefaction, and the degree of increase varied greatly between samples. Osmolality rose with increasing temperature, and the progressive increase was blocked by denaturising temperature. Spermatozoa in each individual semen sample experienced a highly variable environment in vitro with respect to osmolality. This may be of importance regarding the handling of semen samples for the outcome of ART.

Aqueous Extract of Allium sativum (Linn.) Bulbs Ameliorated Pituitary-Testicular Injury and Dysfunction in Wistar Rats with Pb-Induced Reproductive Disturbances

AIM

To determine the effects of aqueous extract of Allium sativum bulbs (AEASAB) on pituitary-testicular injury and dysfunction in Wistar rats with lead-induced reproductive disturbances.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Wistar rats were divided into 7 groups such that the control group received propylene glycol at 0.2 ml/100 g intraperitoneally for 10 consecutive days, the toxic group received lead (Pb) alone at 15 mg/kg/day via intraperitoneal route for 10 days while the treatment groups were pretreated with lead as the toxic group after which they received graded doses of the extract at 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg/day via oral route for 28 days.

RESULTS

Pb administration induced significant deleterious alterations in the antioxidant status of the brain and testis, sperm characterization (counts, motility and viability) as well as reproductive hormones (FSH, LH and testosterone) of exposed rats (p < 0.05). These were significantly reversed in the AEASAB-treated groups (p < 0.05). Also, there was marked improvement in the Pb-induced vascular congestion and cellular loss in the pituitary while the observed Pb-induced severe testicular vacuolation was significantly reversed in the representative photomicrographs, following administration of the extract.

CONCLUSION

AEASAB treatment ameliorated the pituitary-testicular injury and dysfunction in Wistar rats with Pb-Induced reproductive disturbances.

Successful pregnancies and healthy live births using frozen-thawed sperm retrieved by a new modified Hotchkiss procedure in males with retrograde ejaculation: first case series

BACKGROUND

In couples presenting with retrograde ejaculation refractory to medical treatment, the first choice of fertility treatment should be Assisted Reproductive Techniques using rapidly purified spermatozoa retrieved from post-ejaculatory urine. The Hotchkiss technique and modified variants are simple and efficient for retrieving sperm from the bladder. We developed a new protocol, including a novel modified Hotchkiss technique involving sperm cryopreservation. The aim was to study the pregnancy rate and birth rate achieved by intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) using frozen-thawed sperm retrieved from the bladder with this novel modified Hotchkiss technique in patients with refractory retrograde ejaculation.

RESULTS

In this descriptive retrospective, single-center study, we analyzed the local database of all patients who banked sperm at the CECOS Laboratory Biology of Reproduction of La Conception University Hospital, Marseille, France, between 2004 and 2014. A total of 2171 patients banked sperm during this time, including 63 patients with retrograde ejaculation, of whom ten patients banked sperm that had been retrieved by the modified Hotchkiss technique. These ten couples underwent 26 ICSI cycles: nine clinical pregnancies were achieved in six couples, including eight after fresh embryo transfer and one after thawed embryo transfer, resulting in seven live births. The average live birth rate per transfer was 28 %.

CONCLUSIONS

We report the largest series of births using frozen-thawed spermatozoa retrieved from post-ejaculatory urine by a modified Hotchkiss technique. This series of births demonstrates that this new modified Hotchkiss technique allows for successful association with sperm cryopreservation, leading to an efficient and easy management of couples with refractory retrograde ejaculation.

Diverse nitrogen sources in seminal fluid act in synergy to induce filamentous growth of Candida albicans

The pathogenic fungus Candida albicans is the leading cause of vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). VVC represents a major quality-of-life issue for women during their reproductive years, a stage of life where the vaginal epithelium is subject to periodic hormonally induced changes associated with menstruation and concomitant exposure to serum as well as potential intermittent contact with seminal fluid. Seminal fluid potently triggers Candida albicans to switch from yeastlike to filamentous modes of growth, a developmental response tightly linked to virulence. Conversely, vaginal fluid inhibits filamentation. Here, we used artificial formulations of seminal and vaginal fluids that faithfully mimic genuine fluids to assess the contribution of individual components within these fluids to filamentation. The high levels of albumin, amino acids, and N-acetylglucosamine in seminal fluid act synergistically as potent inducers of filamentous growth, even at atmospheric levels of CO2 and reduced temperatures (30 °C). Using a simplified in vitro model that mimics the natural introduction of seminal fluid into the vulvovaginal environment, a pulse of artificial seminal fluid (ASF) was found to exert an enduring potential to overcome the inhibitory efficacy of artificial vaginal fluid (AVF) on filamentation. These findings suggest that a transient but substantial change in the nutrient levels within the vulvovaginal environment during unprotected coitus can induce resident C. albicans cells to engage developmental programs associated with virulent growth.

Salvaging urospermic ejaculates from brown bear (Ursus arctos)

The objective of this study was to reverse the osmotic stress of sperm in urine contaminated bear ejaculates that were obtained by electroejaculation using pre-freezing washing or density gradient centrifugation isolation. In Experiment 1, ejaculates were divided into six aliquots, five were diluted in each washing extender: 200, 300, 400, 500 and 700 mOsm/kg (prepared from a Tes-Tris-Fructose base, adding water or fructose as corresponds), at a 1:2 ratio (raw semen: washing solution, v/v); and the other aliquot was handled without washing (Control group). Samples were centrifuged at 600 × g for 6 min prior to freezing. In Experiment 2, ejaculates were divided into two aliquots: one was diluted 1:1 with TCG (Tris-Citric acid-Glucose) and centrifuged at 600 × g for 6 min (Centrifugation Control; C-Control); the other was treated with PureSperm density gradient column. After treatments, samples were cryopreserved. Sperm motility, viability (SYBR-14/propidium iodide (PI)) and acrosomal status (peanut agglutinin-fluorescein isothiocyanate (PNA-FITC)/PI) were analyzed before and after freezing. Ejaculates with an initial osmolality of less than 120 mOsm/kg treated with pre-freezing washing, and the Control sample had greater pre-freezing sperm motility than the raw ejaculate, but sperm viability was not different among these groups. The samples washed with 700 mOsm/kg solutions had the least pre-freezing viability. In the post-thawing evaluation, pre-freezing washing treatments did not provide any improvement in comparison with the Control sample, and treatment with 700 mOsm/kg extender had deleterious effects in all urospermic samples. PureSperm density gradient centrifugation applied to urospermic raw semen was suitable for improving sperm motility and viability of pre-freezing samples and the selected spermatozoa had greater freezing capacity.

ACIDFORM: a review of the evidence

OBJECTIVE

ACIDFORM is a candidate microbicide with spermicidal properties. A large Phase 3 trial is underway, and it is anticipated that this product will be approved for contraceptive use and marketed soon in the United States. The goal of this article is to critically review the evidence supporting the properties, safety profile and different uses of ACIDFORM gel.

STUDY DESIGN

We searched PubMed and Medline for any published literature on ACIDFORM.

RESULTS

ACIDFORM is an acidifying agent that works by lowering the vaginal pH to enhance the normal vaginal defenses. In addition to strong acid-buffering properties, ACIDFORM has high bioadhesive and viscosity-retaining properties. Several Phase 1 clinical trials have demonstrated the vaginal safety of ACIDFORM used alone or in combination with a diaphragm, although dose-dependent side effects appear to be present. Studies investigating the efficacy of ACIDFORM against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are promising, but further trials are needed.

CONCLUSIONS

The properties of ACIDFORM offer many advantages for use, either alone or in combination with another active ingredient, such as Tenofovir. Potential applications for ACIDFORM include use as a personal lubricant, a vaginal contraceptive (alone or with a barrier method) and a microbicidal product or as a formulation vehicle for an active ingredient.

IMPLICATIONS

ACIDFORM is a candidate female-controlled vaginal preparation with microbicidal and spermicidal properties. A dual protection method could prevent unwanted pregnancies and reduce the risk of STI acquisition.

Lactotransferrin in Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) seminal plasma correlates with semen quality

Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) have highly variable ejaculate quality within individuals, greatly reducing the efficacy of artificial insemination and making it difficult to devise a sperm cryopreservation protocol for this endangered species. Because seminal plasma influences sperm function and physiology, including sperm motility, the objectives of this study were to characterize the chemistry and protein profiles of Asian elephant seminal plasma and to determine the relationships between seminal plasma components and semen quality. Ejaculates exhibiting good sperm motility (≥65%) expressed higher percentages of spermatozoa with normal morphology (80.3±13.0 vs. 44.9±30.8%) and positive Spermac staining (51.9±14.5 vs. 7.5±14.4%), in addition to higher total volume (135.1±89.6 vs. 88.8±73.1 ml) and lower sperm concentration (473.0±511.2 vs. 1313.8±764.7×10⁶ cells ml⁻¹) compared to ejaculates exhibiting poor sperm motility (≤10%; P<0.05). Comparison of seminal plasma from ejaculates with good versus poor sperm motility revealed significant differences in concentrations of creatine phosphokinase, alanine aminotransferase, phosphorus, sodium, chloride, magnesium, and glucose. These observations suggest seminal plasma influences semen quality in elephants. One- and two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis revealed largely similar compositional profiles of seminal plasma proteins between good and poor motility ejaculates. However, a protein of ∼80 kDa was abundant in 85% of ejaculates with good motility, and was absent in 90% of poor motility ejaculates (P<0.05). We used mass spectrometry to identify this protein as lactotransferrin, and immunoblot analysis to confirm this identification. Together, these findings lay a functional foundation for understanding the contributions of seminal plasma in the regulation of Asian elephant sperm motility, and for improving semen collection and storage in this endangered species.

The effects of frequent electroejaculation on the semen characteristics of a captive Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica)

Artificial insemination (AI) can help to avoid inbreeding and genetic degeneration for sustaining genetically healthy populations of endangered species in captivity. Collection of a sufficient quantity of viable sperm is an essential first step in the AI process. In the present study, we examined the effects of frequent electroejaculation on semen characteristics in a Siberian tiger. We collected semen in all 17 trials during 6 breeding seasons (6 years). The mean number of sperm and the percentage of motile sperm were 294.3 ± 250.2×10⁶/ejaculate and 82.4 ± 11.4%, respectively. The number of motile sperm tended to increase during frequent electroejaculation in the same breeding season. Semen collection by electroejaculation can be performed effectively up to the fourth sequential ejaculate, which contained the most sperm in the study. In conclusion, frequent collection of sperm by electroejaculation from tigers may be effective for collection of a large number of motile sperm.

Sperm motility and DNA integrity affected by different g-forces in the preparation of sperm in urine specimens

Retrograde ejaculation, a common type of anejaculation, is attributable to many causes, some of which can be treated with medication and some of which cannot. For infertility treatment, sperm must be collected from the urine of the patients. Our study attempts to ascertain the effects of different g-forces on sperm motility, morphology and DNA integrity in sperm preparation by the Sil-Select™ density gradient method of isolating sperm from urine specimens. Forty-seven semen samples with normal semen analyses according to World Health Organisation (WHO) 1999 criteria were included in this study. Semen samples of 1 ml were mixed with 20 ml alkalinised normal urine and then divided equally into tubes A and B. The two samples were prepared by the Sil-Select™ density gradient centrifugation method at 350 g (tube A) and at 700 g (tube B). Total motile sperm after centrifugation at 700 g was significantly higher than after centrifugation at 350 g [6.7 (0.4-23.0) million versus 3.1 (0.1-13.7) million] (P < 0.001). There was no significant difference between the either the percentage of sperm with normal morphology or with DNA damage between centrifugation at 350 g and 700 g (P > 0.05), although centrifugation at 700 g achieves a higher number of total motile sperm compared with Sil-Select™ sperm preparation at 350 g centrifugation.

Characterization of 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase, HIBADH, as a sperm-motility marker

PURPOSE

Asthenozoospermia is a major cause of male infertility. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying sperm-motility defects remain largely unknown in the majority of cases. In our previous study, we applied a proteomic approach to identify unknown proteins that were downregulated in spermatozoa with low motility compared to spermatozoa with good motility. Several sperm motility- related proteins have been identified. In this study, 3-hydroxyisobutyrate dehydrogenase (HIBADH), one of the proteins identified using the proteomic tools, is further characterized.

METHODS

Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reactions (RT-PCR), western blotting, and immunofluorescence assays (IFA) were preformed to investigate the expression pattern. The enzymatic activity of HIBADH was evaluated in sperm with good (>50 %), moderate (< 50 %) and lower motility (< 20 %).

RESULTS

Using RT-PCR, we found that transcripts of HIBADH are enriched in the cerebellum, heart, skeletal muscle, uterus, placenta, and testes of male humans. In western blotting, it is expressed in the placenta, testes, and spermatozoa. During spermiogenesis, HIBADH is located at the mid-piece (a specialized development from the mitochondria) of elongating, elongated, and mature sperm. The enzymatic activity of HIBADH in sperm with moderate and lower motility were significantly reduced compared with good motility (P<0.0001 and P<0.05, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicated that HIBADH is involved in the mitochondrial function of spermatozoa, and maintains sperm motility. It may serve as a sperm-motility marker.

Kinematic study on the effect of pH on bull sperm function

Since the mammalian spermatozoa became capable of motion, during the epididymal transit, the spermatozoon swims in a liquid medium and it is completely dependent on the environmental conditions. Some reports have suggested an influence of pH on sperm kinetic characteristics, but no study has objectively described how motility changes in a different environmental pH. In this study, we evaluated the effect of different environmental pHs (5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, and 8.5) on kinetic parameters, sperm viability, mitochondrial activity, and sperm morphology of bull semen immediately and 1h after dilution. The results showed higher values for sperm motility characteristics, viability, and mitochondrial activity at pH 7 and 7.5. Values of pH lower than 6.5 and higher than 8 resulted in suboptimal motility, with a decrease in most parameters. At pH 8 and 8.5, a discrepancy between viability and total and progressive motility was found, with a significant amount of spermatozoa that were live but immotile. This reduction seemed related to a decrease in mitochondrial activity, possibly due to the increase in pH. The flow cytometric evaluation of sperm viability assessed by calcein AM was very consistent with the amount of spermatozoa with membrane integrity, evaluated in fluorescence by propidium iodide/SYBR-14 stain. Thus, the calcein AM stain could be used as viability stain instead the classic propidium iodide/SYBR-14 stain because this could allow the addiction of other functional stains without a overlapping of the fluorescent signal in the flow cytometer.

Preparation and incubation conditions affect the DNA integrity of ejaculated human spermatozoa

Appropriate semen processing and assessment are critical for successful infertility treatment. We investigated whether laboratory procedures including semen preparation and incubation affect sperm DNA integrity. A total of 153 infertile men were involved. Conventional semen parameters and sperm chromatin structure assay (SCSA) parameters, that is, DNA fragmentation index (%DFI) and high DNA stainability (%HDS), were assessed on the fresh ejaculated semen samples, which were treated and incubated under different conditions. Negative correlations were identified between the %DFI and sperm concentration, motility, progressive motility and morphology. A lower percentage of DFI was detected in spermatozoa when density gradient centrifugation (DGC) was followed by swim-up treatment in comparison with DGC alone (P < 0.01). Although the %DFI increased in a time-dependent manner with incubation both at room temperature (RT) and at 37 degrees C in air, the %DFI after 24 h at RT was significantly lower than that at 37 degrees C (P < 0.05). Incubation with 5% CO2 was effective in maintaining sperm motility (P < 0.01); however, it induced further elevation of %DFI (P < 0.001). Thus, sperm DNA damage was associated with longer incubation periods. Interestingly, common culture conditions, such as maintaining pH and temperature, compromised the sperm DNA integrity.

Longevity of spermatozoa in the post-ejaculatory urine of fertile men

Many scientists of varying clinical backgrounds have described the phenomenon of spermaturia in animals, adolescents as well as fertile and infertile men. Nevertheless, research for an expert opinion on a law case in the field of forensic medicine revealed a lack of valid information about the longevity of spermatozoa in post-ejaculatory urine (PEU) of fertile men. Our goal was to measure the appearance of vivid sperm in PEU while considering the factor of time in order to predict a realistic interval, in which positive sperm findings might occur. Therefore ten healthy, young men donated their sperm for fertility analysis and a urine sample prior to and after ejaculation. The time intervals between ejaculation and the first micturition were preset ranging between 30 min and maximal 11h. Each ejaculate underwent a semen analysis. The pre- and post-ejaculatory urine samples were screened for the presence of viable and motile spermatozoa. Semen parameters were determined and related to the sperm findings in the precipitate of the urine samples. The amount, the viability and motility status of the detected spermatozoa were recorded after each preset time interval. The results showed that none of the 10 participants had sperm in their urine samples prior to ejaculation. The average sperm concentration was 50.1+/-25.8 million/ml. After a time span of 30 min 59.5% of the first fractions of PEU samples were sperm positive, after 2 and 4h still 70%, and after 5h sperm were no longer detected. The last motile spermatozoa could be found after 4.5h. It seems that remaining sperm in the urethra are washed out with the first micturition in the majority of fertile men, however, the conclusion as to whether sperm findings >5h after ejaculation are improbable needs to be confirmed by further investigations.

Effect of vaginal lubricants on sperm motility and chromatin integrity: a prospective comparative study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of vaginal lubricants Pre-Seed, FemGlide, Astroglide, and Replens on human sperm motility and chromatin integrity.

DESIGN

Prospective, comparative, in vitro study.

SETTING

Andrology laboratory at tertiary care hospital.

PATIENT(S)

Thirteen normozoospermic donors.

INTERVENTION(S)

Semen samples from 13 subjects were incubated in human tubal fluid media (HTF) controls and 10% (vol/vol) of Pre-Seed, FemGlide, Astroglide, and Replens lubricants. After 30 minutes, progressive sperm motility was assessed by light microscopy. Semen samples of 12 patients were placed in positive control (HTF), negative control (10% K-Y Jelly lubricant), and 10% vol/vol Pre-Seed and FemGlide lubricants. After 4 hours culture, spermatozoa were analyzed for percent DNA fragmentation index with use of the acridine orange-based sperm chromatin structure assay.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Sperm motility and percent DNA fragmentation index.

RESULTS

Percent motility did not differ significantly between HTF controls and Pre-Seed, whereas FemGlide, Replens, and Astroglide lubricants demonstrated a significant decrease in motility. There was no significant difference in percent DNA fragmentation index between the HTF controls and Pre-Seed, but a significant decline in sperm chromatin quality occurred with FemGlide and K-Y Jelly.

CONCLUSION

Pre-Seed does not cause a significant decrease in progressive sperm motility or chromatin integrity in contrast to other lubricants used by couples.

Development and in vitro testing of a new method of urine preparation for retrograde ejaculation; the Liverpool solution

OBJECTIVE

To design a new method for oral preparation of urine for sperm retrieval after retrograde ejaculation (RE) and to test the motility of sperm exposed to prepared and unprepared urine.

DESIGN

In vitro testing of urine conditions and sperm motility.

SETTING

Assisted conception unit at a teaching hospital in the United Kingdom.

PATIENT(S)

Ten healthy volunteers to provide urine and sperm specimens from men attending the unit for semen analysis.

INTERVENTION(S)

Various solutions of sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride were drunk by a single subject until a suitable regimen was achieved. This regimen (called the Liverpool solution) was then tested on 10 volunteers. Samples of sperm were then added to prepared urine, unprepared urine, and culture medium, and the motility was analyzed.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Urinary pH and osmolarity, sperm motility.

RESULT(S)

Urine produced by the 10 volunteers had a mean pH of 7.47 (range, 7.23-7.79) and a mean osmolarity of 289 mOsmol/L (range, 225-412 mOsmol/L), similar to that of medium. The progressive motility of sperm exposed to the unprepared urine was reduced (42.4% of sperm in medium), whereas that in the prepared urine was similar to that in the control medium.

CONCLUSION(S)

Liverpool solution can be used in any unit treating couples with RE, and it is a noninvasive and inexpensive regimen that may optimize urine pH and osmolarity for sperm survival after RE.

Medical treatment of retrograde ejaculation in diabetic patients: a hope for spontaneous pregnancy

INTRODUCTION

Retrograde ejaculation (RE) is one of the complications of diabetes mellitus. Different therapeutic approaches are present, whether medical or surgical, with limited success rates.

AIM

The aim of the present study is to evaluate different drug regimens for the medical treatment of RE in diabetic patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Thirty-three diabetic patients with RE (23 complete and 10 partial) were included in the study. Patients were given three sequential courses of medical treatment: imipramine 25 mg twice/day, pseudoephidrine 120 mg twice/day, or combination of the two drugs.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Establishment of antegrade ejaculate in cases with complete RE and improvement of semen quality in case of partial RE.

RESULTS

In cases with complete RE, imipramine was successful in producing antegrade ejaculate in 10 patients (38.5%), while pseudoephedrine was successful in 11 patients (47.8%), and both drugs given together was successful in 16 patients (61.5%). In cases with partial RE, there was significant increase in the antegrade semen sample as regards semen volume, sperm count, total, and progressive motility with imipramine alone, pseudoephidrine alone, and both drugs.

CONCLUSION

From the present study we can conclude that medical treatment for RE in diabetic patients is a promising method and should be the first line of treatment in these cases.

Comparison of different sperm cryopreservation procedures on post-thaw quality and heterologous in vitro fertilisation success in the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis)

Cryopreservation of spermatozoa from free-living ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) could benefit their conservation by facilitating gene flow between in situ and ex situ populations without requiring removal of additional cats from the wild. The objective of this study was to investigate three different methods of ocelot sperm cryopreservation to identify the most appropriate technique for use in a field environment. Male ocelots (n = 10), housed in North American zoos, were anaesthetised with tiletamine–zolazepam (7mg kg–1 bodyweight; i.m.) and subjected to a regimented electroejaculation procedure. Recovered semen was evaluated for sperm concentration, motility and morphology and processed for cryopreservation by three methods: (1) pelleting on dry ice, (2) freezing in straws over liquid nitrogen vapour; and (3) freezing in straws in a dry shipper. Frozen samples were thawed and assessed for post-thaw acrosome status, viability, motility over time and ability to fertilise viable domestic cat oocytes. Although several post-thaw sperm parameters varied (P < 0.05) among freezing methods, frozen–thawed ocelot spermatozoa from all treatments showed a similar (P > 0.05) capacity to bind, penetrate and fertilise viable domestic cat oocytes. These findings suggest that spermatozoa collected from male ocelots under field conditions may be frozen in straws either using liquid nitrogen alone or in a charged dry shipper to retain adequate functional competence after thawing for use with assisted reproductive procedures.

Effectiveness of a tris-based extender (SHOTOR diluent) for the preservation of Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) semen

The development of a suitable semen extender is required to extend artificial breeding programs and to preserve the genetic potential of Bactrian camel. Experiments were conducted to provide the optimal osmolality and pH of tris-based extender and to compare that with available extenders for short-term preservation of Bactrian camel semen at 4 degrees C during 24 h. In experiments I and II, the effects of varying osmolalities (270, 300, 330, 360, and 390 mOsm/kg) and pHs (5.5, 6, 6.9, 7.5, 7.9, and 8.9) of tris-based extender on sperm viability were investigated. In experiment III, the efficiency of tris-based extender (SHOTOR diluent) in preserving Bactrian camel semen was compared with lactose (10%), sucrose (10%) and Green buffer. Viability parameters including progressive forward motility (PFM), plasma membrane integrity and the percentage of live spermatozoa were assessed. The data were analyzed using general linear model procedure. In the majority of assessments using tris-based extender, the viability of spermatozoa was superior at the osmolality of 330 mOsm/kg and pH of 6.9. PFM was significantly greater at the time of semen dilution in tris-based (65.5%) and Green buffer (60.5%) compared to that of lactose (31%) and sucrose (28%) extenders (P<0.05), and remained elevated throughout the experiment. There was no significant difference in other viability parameters among 4 extenders (P>0.05). In conclusion, the utilization of a tris-based extender, having the osmolality of 330 mOsm/kg and pH of 6.9, favors the short-term preservation of the Bactrian camel spermatozoa under chilled condition.

Physical analysis of ejaculate to evaluate the secretory activity of the seminal vesicles and prostate

The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether analysis of the physical properties of ejaculate also has any diagnostic potential for evaluating the function of these accessory sex glands. Diverse normal and abnormal states of coagulation, liquefaction, volume, viscosity and pH were studied with regard to the levels of biochemical markers of the seminal vesicles (fructose and inorganic phosphorus) and prostate (calcium, zinc and acid phosphatase). Fructose and inorganic phosphorus were significantly decreased in samples with absent or poor coagulation (p<0.001), volume < 2.0 mL (p=0.009 and p<0.001, respectively), hypoviscosity (p=0.013 and p<0.001), hyperviscosity (p=0.006 and p<0.001) and pH < or = 7.1 (p=0.018 and p<0.001). Also, fructose and inorganic phosphorus were significantly decreased in samples with liquefaction > 120 min (p=0.003) and pH > 8.0 (p<0.001), respectively. Calcium, zinc and acid phosphatase activity were significantly increased in samples with absent or poor coagulation (p<0.001), and significantly decreased in samples with volume > 5.0 mL (p=0.007, p=0.034 and p=0.011) and pH > 8.0 (p<0.001). Also, calcium and zinc were significantly increased in hypoviscous samples (p=0.012 and p=0.003), whereas the zinc concentration was significantly lower in hyperviscous samples (p=0.026). Using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, pH showed the highest predictive power to identify prostate dysfunction (83.6%) and simultaneous prostate and seminal vesicle dysfunction (98.8%). Physical analysis of ejaculate was also found to be clinically useful for evaluating the secretory activity of the seminal vesicles and prostate. Abnormal coagulation, liquefaction, volume, viscosity and pH strongly suggest gland dysfunction.

Disruption of the SLC26A3-mediated anion transport is associated with male subfertility

Male subfertility in congenital chloride diarrhea (CLD) was possible after identification of expression of an epithelial Cl-/HCO3- exchanger SLC26A3 in the male reproductive tract and by the observation that adult men with CLD had very few children. A prospective clinical and laboratory study among eight adult Finnish men with CLD revealed constant oligoasthenoteratozoospermia but normal spermatogenesis, high chloride and low pH in seminal plasma, and three spermatoceles, suggesting that male subfertility is a clinical manifestation of CLD and could be caused by an analogous defect in the epithelial Cl-/HCO3- and water transport, as described for the CLD intestine.

SEMEN COLLECTION IN RHINOCEROSES (RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS, DICEROS BICORNIS, CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM) BY ELECTROEJACULATION WITH A UNIQUELY DESIGNED PROBE

Electroejaculation in rhinoceroses has historically yielded inconsistent results, with the collection of high-quality, sperm-rich samples rare. The goal of this study was to develop a reliable method of electroejaculation in the rhinoceros by designing a rectal probe that appropriately fits the anatomy of this taxon and refining the procedure. A curved probe handle ending in an oblate, ellipsoid head was built using readily available supplies. A combination of rectal massage, penile massage, and electrical stimulation with a specially designed probe was employed in attempts to collect semen on 14 occasions from greater one-horned rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis; n = 4), black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis; n = 2) and a southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum; n = 1). During 13 of the 14 attempts, ejaculates were collected in multiple fractions. All but one of the ejaculates contained spermatozoa, and seven ejaculates contained good-quality fractions of semen (-60% sperm motility; > or =20 x 106 spermatozoa/ml) suitable for sperm banking and assisted reproduction procedures. Mean (+/-SEM) values for volume, pH, osmolality, and total sperm number for ejaculates containing good-quality fractions (98.2 +/-21.8 ml, 8.5+/-0.1, 290.4+/-6.7 mOsm, and 37.1+/-12.0 x 10(9), respectively) did not differ (P > 0.05) from those containing only poor-quality samples. Urine and/or erythrocyte contamination was not uncommon in fractions of both ejaculate types. Males producing good-quality samples ranged in age from 7 to 34 yr. None of the samples contained > or =75% morphologically normal spermatozoa. Electroejaculation with a uniquely designed probe consistently produced ejaculates in the rhinoceros. However, the production of high-quality samples continued to be challenging, occurring in only 50% of collection attempts. Regardless, the technology has progressed to a stage at which good-quality semen samples can be produced for sperm banking and assisted reproduction, and thereby can be integrated into intensive rhinoceros management strategies for the ultimate survival of this taxon.

Hyper-osmotic condition enhances protein tyrosine phosphorylation and zona pellucida binding capacity of human sperm

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of culture medium osmolality, in the range known to occur in the male and female reproductive tracts, on human sperm tyrosine phosphorylation and sperm-zona pellucida (ZP) interaction in vitro.

METHODS

Motile sperm (2x10(6)), selected by swim-up from semen of normozoospermic men with normal sperm-ZP binding, were incubated with or without four oocytes in 1 ml human tubal fluid (HTF) medium with different osmolalities (150, 200, 280, 350, 400 mOsm/kg) adjusted by variation of the NaCl concentration. After 2 h incubation, the number of sperm bound to the four ZP was examined, sperm motility and velocities were assessed by Hamilton-Thorn Motility Analyzer (IVOS 10) and sperm tyrosine phosphorylation was assessed by both western immunoblotting and immunofluorescence with an anti-phosphotyrosine monoclonal antibody (PY20). The effect of hyper-osmolality (400 mOsm/kg) on the ZP-induced acrosome reaction (AR) was also determined.

RESULTS

Incubation of human sperm in hyper-osmotic medium significantly increased tyrosine phosphorylation and the number of sperm bound to the ZP. In contrast, hypo-osmotic medium significantly decreased both tyrosine phosphorylation and sperm-ZP binding. Medium with high osmolality (400 mOsm/kg) significantly reduced the ZP-induced AR. Both hypo- and hyper-osmotic media significantly decreased average sperm percentage progressive motility and velocities.

CONCLUSION

Incubation of human sperm in hyper-osmotic media was associated with significantly increased tyrosine phosphorylation and ZP-binding ability but severely reduced the ZP-induced AR.

Long-term motility and fertility conservation of chilled canine semen using egg yolk added Tris–glucose extender: In vitro and in vivo studies

The effects of medium exchange on motility parameters of chilled canine semen preserved in egg yolk Tris-glucose (EYTG) extender were analyzed over a 27-d period. Semen extender was exchanged at three time points (Days 11, 21 and 27) after collection, when motility parameters were demonstrated to significantly decrease from parameters observed at semen preparation (Day 0) or at day of previous extender exchange. In the absence of medium exchanges, motile spermatozoa were observed up to Day 16 (mean +/- S.D. 1.5 +/- 0.3% of motile spermatozoa). A stimulation of the different semen motility parameters was observed after extender exchange. Semen extender exchange at Day 11 allowed conservation of motility until Day 21, compared to 16 d in the absence of extender exchange. At Day 21, when spermatozoa appeared immobile or dead, a second extender exchange was performed, allowing the extension of motility conservation up to Day 27. The third extender exchange, performed at Day 27, was no longer associated with motility stimulation. Glucose content in the medium decreased slowly over time; a concomitant decrease in pH was also observed. No changes in osmolarity were observed over time. To verify the fertility of long-term conserved chilled semen, two groups of 10 bitches were inseminated either once (Group 1) or twice at 48-h intervals (Group 2) intra-vaginally with semen conserved chilled for a mean of 9 +/- 1.8 d. Out of the 10 bitches inseminated once, 5 became pregnant, versus 7 in the group of animals inseminated twice. The present study reports the possibility to extend the conservation of chilled canine semen up to 3 wk with conservation of good fertility for at least 10 d. The role of energetic substrate and pH alteration is postulated and the classically accepted relation of semen motility/viability is raised.

Postcoital testing after the use of a bio-adhesive acid buffering gel (ACIDFORM) and a 2% nonoxynol-9 product

ACIDFORM is a gel already shown to be safe in vaginal use during six consecutive days through colposcopic observation. A randomized, blinded, crossover study was carried out to compare the spermicidal effect of ACIDFORM to that of a commercial 2% nonoxynol-9 (N-9) product. Twenty sexually active, sterilized women, aged 19-45 years, with regular cycles, normal gynecological exam, no previous sexually transmitted infection (STI) and stable partner willing to undergo four postcoital tests (PCTs) at midcycle during four different menstrual cycles, were enrolled in the study. Known allergy to N-9 or ACIDFORM, oligospermic partner, chronic diseases, use of hormones, previous treatment for STI or presence of STI at screening tests were criteria for exclusion. ACIDFORM or N-9 product administered 0-30 min precoitus or ACIDFORM given 8-10 h precoitus significantly reduced the mean number of progressively motile sperm compared to control cycles (0.19, 0.07, 0.75 vs. 17.94, respectively, p<.05, Wilcoxon test). All treated cycles had five or fewer progressively motile sperm in midcycle cervical mucus, confirming in vivo the spermicidal effect of ACIDFORM previously observed in vitro and in animal models.