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Acevedo-Barrios R, Tirado-Ballestas I, Bertel-Sevilla A, Cervantes-Ceballos L, Gallego JL, Leal MA, Tovar D, Olivero-Verbel J. Bioprospecting of extremophilic perchlorate-reducing bacteria: report of promising Bacillus spp. isolated from sediments of the bay of Cartagena, Colombia. Biodegradation 2024; 35:601-620. [PMID: 38625437 PMCID: PMC11246272 DOI: 10.1007/s10532-024-10079-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Three extremophile bacterial strains (BBCOL-009, BBCOL-014 and BBCOL-015), capable of degrading high concentrations of perchlorate at a range of pH (6.5 to 10.0), were isolated from Colombian Caribbean Coast sediments. Morphological features included Gram negative strain bacilli with sizes averaged of 1.75 × 0.95, 2.32 × 0.65 and 3.08 × 0.70 μm, respectively. The reported strains tolerate a wide range of pH (6.5 to 10.0); concentrations of NaCl (3.5 to 7.5% w/v) and KClO4- (250 to 10000 mg/L), reduction of KClO4- from 10 to 25%. LB broth with NaCl (3.5-30% w/v) and KClO4- (250-10000 mg/L) were used in independent trials to evaluate susceptibility to salinity and perchlorate, respectively. Isolates increased their biomass at 7.5 % (w/v) NaCl with optimal development at 3.5 % NaCl. Subsequently, ClO4- reduction was assessed using LB medium with 3.5% NaCl and 10000 mg/L ClO4-. BBCOL-009, BBCOL-014 and BBCOL-015 achieved 10%, 17%, and 25% reduction of ClO4-, respectively. The 16 S rRNA gene sequence grouped them as Bacillus flexus T6186-2, Bacillus marisflavi TF-11 (T), and Bacillus vietnamensis 15 - 1 (T) respectively, with < 97.5% homology. In addition, antimicrobial resistance to ertapenem, vancomycine, amoxicillin clavulanate, penicillin, and erythromycin was present in all the isolates, indicating their high adaptability to stressful environments. The isolated strains from marine sediments in Cartagena Bay, Colombia are suitable candidates to reduce perchlorate contamination in different environments. Although the primary focus of the study of perchlorate-reducing and resistant bacteria is in the ecological and agricultural realms, from an astrobiological perspective, perchlorate-resistant bacteria serve as models for astrobiological investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Acevedo-Barrios
- Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Cartagena, Zaragocilla Campus, Cartagena, 130015, Colombia.
- Grupo de Estudios Químicos y Biológicos, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Tecnológica de Bolívar, POB 130001, Cartagena de Indias D. T. y C, Colombia.
| | - Irina Tirado-Ballestas
- GENOMA Group, Health Sciences Department, Universidad del Sinú, Santillana Campus, Cartagena, 130015, Colombia
- Group of Functional Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Cartagena, Zaragocilla Campus, Cartagena, 130015, Colombia
| | - Angela Bertel-Sevilla
- Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Cartagena, Zaragocilla Campus, Cartagena, 130015, Colombia
| | - Leonor Cervantes-Ceballos
- Group of Functional Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Cartagena, Zaragocilla Campus, Cartagena, 130015, Colombia
| | - Jorge L Gallego
- Department of Engineering, University of Medellin, Medellín, 050026, Colombia
| | - María Angélica Leal
- Planetary Sciences and Astrobiology Research Group (GCPA), Universidad Nacional de Colombia and Corporación Científica Laguna, Bogotá, 111321, Colombia
- Biosphere and Cosmos Research Group (BIOC). Corporación Científica Laguna, Bogotá, 111163, Colombia
| | - David Tovar
- Planetary Sciences and Astrobiology Research Group (GCPA), Universidad Nacional de Colombia and Corporación Científica Laguna, Bogotá, 111321, Colombia
- Biosphere and Cosmos Research Group (BIOC). Corporación Científica Laguna, Bogotá, 111163, Colombia
| | - Jesús Olivero-Verbel
- Environmental and Computational Chemistry Group, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Cartagena, Zaragocilla Campus, Cartagena, 130015, Colombia
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2
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Spry JA, Siegel B, Bakermans C, Beaty DW, Bell MS, Benardini JN, Bonaccorsi R, Castro-Wallace SL, Coil DA, Coustenis A, Doran PT, Fenton L, Fidler DP, Glass B, Hoffman SJ, Karouia F, Levine JS, Lupisella ML, Martin-Torres J, Mogul R, Olsson-Francis K, Ortega-Ugalde S, Patel MR, Pearce DA, Race MS, Regberg AB, Rettberg P, Rummel JD, Sato KY, Schuerger AC, Sefton-Nash E, Sharkey M, Singh NK, Sinibaldi S, Stabekis P, Stoker CR, Venkateswaran KJ, Zimmerman RR, Zorzano-Mier MP. Planetary Protection Knowledge Gap Closure Enabling Crewed Missions to Mars. ASTROBIOLOGY 2024; 24:230-274. [PMID: 38507695 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2023.0092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
As focus for exploration of Mars transitions from current robotic explorers to development of crewed missions, it remains important to protect the integrity of scientific investigations at Mars, as well as protect the Earth's biosphere from any potential harmful effects from returned martian material. This is the discipline of planetary protection, and the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) maintains the consensus international policy and guidelines on how this is implemented. Based on National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and European Space Agency (ESA) studies that began in 2001, COSPAR adopted principles and guidelines for human missions to Mars in 2008. At that point, it was clear that to move from those qualitative provisions, a great deal of work and interaction with spacecraft designers would be necessary to generate meaningful quantitative recommendations that could embody the intent of the Outer Space Treaty (Article IX) in the design of such missions. Beginning in 2016, COSPAR then sponsored a multiyear interdisciplinary meeting series to address planetary protection "knowledge gaps" (KGs) with the intent of adapting and extending the current robotic mission-focused Planetary Protection Policy to support the design and implementation of crewed and hybrid exploration missions. This article describes the outcome of the interdisciplinary COSPAR meeting series, to describe and address these KGs, as well as identify potential paths to gap closure. It includes the background scientific basis for each topic area and knowledge updates since the meeting series ended. In particular, credible solutions for KG closure are described for the three topic areas of (1) microbial monitoring of spacecraft and crew health; (2) natural transport (and survival) of terrestrial microbial contamination at Mars, and (3) the technology and operation of spacecraft systems for contamination control. The article includes a KG data table on these topic areas, which is intended to be a point of departure for making future progress in developing an end-to-end planetary protection requirements implementation solution for a crewed mission to Mars. Overall, the workshop series has provided evidence of the feasibility of planetary protection implementation for a crewed Mars mission, given (1) the establishment of needed zoning, emission, transport, and survival parameters for terrestrial biological contamination and (2) the creation of an accepted risk-based compliance approach for adoption by spacefaring actors including national space agencies and commercial/nongovernment organizations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Corien Bakermans
- Department of Biology, Penn. State University (Altoona), Altoona, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - David W Beaty
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | | | | | - Rosalba Bonaccorsi
- SETI Institute, Mountain View, California, USA
- NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, USA
| | | | - David A Coil
- School of Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | | | - Peter T Doran
- Department of Geology & Geophysics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Lori Fenton
- SETI Institute, Mountain View, California, USA
| | - David P Fidler
- Council on Foreign Relations, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Brian Glass
- NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, USA
| | | | - Fathi Karouia
- NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, USA
| | - Joel S Levine
- College of William & Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA
| | | | - Javier Martin-Torres
- School of Geoscience, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
- Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra (CSIC-UGR), Armilla, Spain
| | - Rakesh Mogul
- California Polytechnic (Pomona), Pomona, California, USA
| | - Karen Olsson-Francis
- School of Environment, Earth and Ecosystem Sciences, Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | | | - Manish R Patel
- School of Environment, Earth and Ecosystem Sciences, Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom
| | - David A Pearce
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | - John D Rummel
- Friday Harbor Associates LLC, Friday Harbor, Washington, USA
| | | | - Andrew C Schuerger
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Merritt Island, Florida, USA
| | | | - Matthew Sharkey
- US Department of Health & Human Services, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Nitin K Singh
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | | | | | - Carol R Stoker
- NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California, USA
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3
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Maggiori C, Fernández-Martínez MA, Bourdages LJ, Sánchez-García L, Moreno-Paz M, Sobrado JM, Carrizo D, Vicente-Retortillo Á, Goordial J, Whyte LG. Biosignature Detection and MinION Sequencing of Antarctic Cryptoendoliths After Exposure to Mars Simulation Conditions. ASTROBIOLOGY 2024; 24:44-60. [PMID: 38153386 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2023.0025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
In the search for life in our Solar System, Mars remains a promising target based on its proximity and similarity to Earth. When Mars transitioned from a warmer, wetter climate to its current dry and freezing conditions, any putative extant life probably retreated into habitable refugia such as the subsurface or the interior of rocks. Terrestrial cryptoendolithic microorganisms (i.e., those inhabiting rock interiors) thus represent possible modern-day Mars analogs, particularly those from the hyperarid McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica. As DNA is a strong definitive biosignature, given that there is no known abiotic chemistry that can polymerize nucleobases, we investigated DNA detection with MinION sequencing in Antarctic cryptoendoliths after an ∼58-sol exposure in MARTE, a Mars environmental chamber capable of simulating martian temperature, pressure, humidity, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and atmospheric composition, in conjunction with protein and lipid detection. The MARTE conditions resulted in changes in community composition and DNA, proteins, and cell membrane-derived lipids remained detectable postexposure. Of the multitude of extreme environmental conditions on Mars, UV radiation (specifically UVC) is the most destructive to both cells and DNA. As such, we further investigated if a UVC exposure corresponding to ∼278 martian years would impede DNA detection via MinION sequencing. The MinION was able to successfully detect and sequence DNA after this UVC radiation exposure, suggesting its utility for life detection in future astrobiology missions focused on finding relatively recently exposed biomarkers inside possible martian refugia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Maggiori
- Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | - Miguel Angel Fernández-Martínez
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Ste. Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
- Department of Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Louis-Jacques Bourdages
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Ste. Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Jacqueline Goordial
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Lyle G Whyte
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Ste. Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
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4
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Zaccaria T, de Jonge MI, Domínguez-Andrés J, Netea MG, Beblo-Vranesevic K, Rettberg P. Survival of Environment-Derived Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogens to Martian Conditions: Is There a Concern for Human Missions to Mars? ASTROBIOLOGY 2024; 24:100-113. [PMID: 38227836 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2023.0057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
The health of astronauts during space travel to new celestial bodies in the Solar System is a critical factor in the planning of a mission. Despite cleaning and decontamination protocols, microorganisms from the Earth have been and will be identified on spacecraft. This raises concerns for human safety and planetary protection, especially if these microorganisms can evolve and adapt to the new environment. In this study, we examined the tolerance of clinically relevant nonfastidious bacterial species that originate from environmental sources (Burkholderia cepacia, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Serratia marcescens) to simulated martian conditions. Our research showed changes in growth and survival of these species in the presence of perchlorates, under desiccating conditions, exposure to ultraviolet radiation, and exposure to martian atmospheric composition and pressure. In addition, our results demonstrate that growth was enhanced by the addition of a martian regolith simulant to the growth media. Additional future research is warranted to examine potential changes in the infectivity, pathogenicity, and virulence of these species with exposure to martian conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tommaso Zaccaria
- Research Group Astrobiology, Radiation Biology Department, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR), Cologne, Germany
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Marien I de Jonge
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Laboratory of Medical Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Jorge Domínguez-Andrés
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Mihai G Netea
- Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
- Department for Immunology and Metabolism, Life and Medical Sciences Institute (LIMES), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Kristina Beblo-Vranesevic
- Research Group Astrobiology, Radiation Biology Department, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR), Cologne, Germany
| | - Petra Rettberg
- Research Group Astrobiology, Radiation Biology Department, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR), Cologne, Germany
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5
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Mettler MK, Goemann HM, Mueller RC, Vanegas OA, Lopez G, Singh N, Venkateswaran K, Peyton BM. Development of Martian saline seep models and their implications for planetary protection. Biofilm 2023; 5:100127. [PMID: 37252227 PMCID: PMC10209689 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2023.100127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
While life on Mars has not been found, Earth-based microorganisms may contaminate the Red Planet during rover expeditions and human exploration. Due to the survival advantages conferred by the biofilm morphology to microorganisms, such as resistance to UV and osmotic stress, biofilms are particularly concerning from a planetary protection perspective. Modeling and data from the NASA Phoenix mission indicate that temporary liquid water might exist on Mars in the form of high salinity brines. These brines could provide colonization opportunities for terrestrial microorganisms brought by spacecraft or humans. To begin testing for potential establishment of microbes, results are presented from a simplified laboratory model of a Martian saline seep inoculated with sediment from Hailstone Basin, a terrestrial saline seep in Montana (USA). The seep was modeled as a sand-packed drip flow reactor at room temperature fed media with either 1 M MgSO4 or 1 M NaCl. Biofilms were established within the first sampling point of each experiment. Endpoint 16S rRNA gene community analysis showed significant selection of halophilic microorganisms by the media. Additionally, we detected 16S rRNA gene sequences highly similar to microorganisms previously detected in two spacecraft assembly cleanrooms. These experimental models provide an important foundation for identifying microbes that could hitch-hike on spacecraft and may be able to colonize Martian saline seeps. Future model optimization will be vital to informing cleanroom sterilization procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madelyn K. Mettler
- Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Hannah M. Goemann
- Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Rebecca C. Mueller
- Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
- USDA Agricultural Research Service, Western Regional Research Center, Albany, CA, USA
| | | | | | - Nitin Singh
- NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | | | - Brent M. Peyton
- Center for Biofilm Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
- Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
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6
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Chen F, Ly C, Mikellides I, Bernard D, Cooper M. Mars 2020 Mission Biological Return Sample Contamination Control Approach and Verification. ASTROBIOLOGY 2023; 23:862-879. [PMID: 37584747 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2022.0048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
The Mars 2020 Perseverance rover is equipped with a Sample Caching System (SCS) designed to collect and cache martian core and regolith samples for potential return to Earth. To ensure the integrity of these samples, the mission requirements for each encapsulated sample for return is less than one Earth-sourced viable organism (VO) and more than a 99.9% probability of being free of any Earth-sourced VO. To satisfy the stringent biological contamination requirements in support of return sample science investigations, special bioburden mitigation and reduction approaches were developed and implemented for SCS hardware that would directly contact or be in close proximity to the martian samples. In this study, we describe the implemented approaches for microbiological contamination reduction and mitigation, detail the processes of the SCS aseptic assembly, and report the estimated VO for each returned sample. We found that our conservative estimate of the computed probability of a single VO in the returned sample is more than one order of magnitude lower than the biological contamination requirement while the best estimate exceeds two orders of magnitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Chen
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Cynthia Ly
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Ioannis Mikellides
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Douglas Bernard
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Moogega Cooper
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
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7
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Schuerger AC, Headrick EL. Microbial Protocols for Spacecraft: 3. Spore Monolayer Preparation Methods for Ultraviolet Irradiation Exposures. ASTROBIOLOGY 2023; 23:908-920. [PMID: 36946872 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2022.0072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Developing robust microbial survival models for interplanetary and planetary spacecraft requires precise inactivation kinetics for vehicle bioburdens. To generate such data, reliable protocols are required for preparing, testing, and assaying microbial cells or spores on simulated spacecraft materials. New data are presented on the utility of the liquid droplet protocol for applying Bacillus subtilis spores to aluminum coupons. Results indicate that low-density spore monolayers should be created between 2 and 5 × 106 spores per cm2 on individual coupons to prevent the formation of aggregates or multilayers of spores. Such aggregation or multilayers will interfere with the precision of characterizing the effects of UV irradiation on spore survival. Optimum spore monolayers are defined as spore monolayers without overlapping or clustered cells and in which all spores will receive UV photons during assays. The best spore monolayers were created with sterile deionized water (SDIW) on uncoated aluminum coupons, or with SDIW + Triton X-100 (at 0.5 × of the critical micellar concentration) on either uncoated Al-coupons or on Chemfilm Class 1A-coated coupons. The Triton X-100 surfactant improved the uniformity of the monolayers without affecting the sensitivity of the spores to UV irradiation. Furthermore, spore layers created at either 2 × 107 or 2 × 108 spores/cm2 created multi-stacking effects that clearly reduced the precision of the UV irradiation assays. A set of standardized protocols is suggested for spacecraft processing and planetary protection communities to permit directly comparing results from divergent labs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Schuerger
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Space Life Sciences Lab, Merritt Island, Florida, USA
| | - Erika L Headrick
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Space Life Sciences Lab, Merritt Island, Florida, USA
- Bionano, San Diego, California, USA
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8
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Lorenz C, Bianchi E, Poggiali G, Alemanno G, Benesperi R, Brucato JR, Garland S, Helbert J, Loppi S, Lorek A, Maturilli A, Papini A, de Vera JP, Baqué M. Survivability of the lichen Xanthoria parietina in simulated Martian environmental conditions. Sci Rep 2023; 13:4893. [PMID: 36966209 PMCID: PMC10039903 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32008-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Xanthoria parietina (L.) Th. Fr. is a widely spread foliose lichen showing high tolerance against UV-radiation thanks to parietin, a secondary lichen substance. We exposed samples of X. parietina under simulated Martian conditions for 30 days to explore its survivability. The lichen's vitality was monitored via chlorophyll a fluorescence that gives an indication for active light reaction of photosynthesis, performing in situ and after-treatment analyses. Raman spectroscopy and TEM were used to evaluate carotenoid preservation and possible variations in the photobiont's ultrastructure respectively. Significant differences in the photo-efficiency between UV irradiated samples and dark-kept samples were observed. Fluorescence values correlated with temperature and humidity day-night cycles. The photo-efficiency recovery showed that UV irradiation caused significant effects on the photosynthetic light reaction. Raman spectroscopy showed that the carotenoid signal from UV exposed samples decreased significantly after the exposure. TEM observations confirmed that UV exposed samples were the most affected by the treatment, showing chloroplastidial disorganization in photobionts' cells. Overall, X. parietina was able to survive the simulated Mars conditions, and for this reason it may be considered as a candidate for space long-term space exposure and evaluations of the parietin photodegradability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Lorenz
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via la Pira 4, 50121, Florence, Italy
| | - Elisabetta Bianchi
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via la Pira 4, 50121, Florence, Italy
| | - Giovanni Poggiali
- LESIA-Observatoire de Paris, CNRS, Université PSL, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, 5 Place Jules Janssen, 92190, Meudon, France
- INAF-Astrophysical Observatory of Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi 5, 50125, Florence, Italy
| | - Giulia Alemanno
- Planetary Laboratories Department, Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Ruthefordstraße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Renato Benesperi
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via la Pira 4, 50121, Florence, Italy
| | - John Robert Brucato
- INAF-Astrophysical Observatory of Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi 5, 50125, Florence, Italy.
| | - Stephen Garland
- Planetary Laboratories Department, Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Ruthefordstraße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörn Helbert
- Planetary Laboratories Department, Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Ruthefordstraße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefano Loppi
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Siena, Via P. A. Mattioli 4, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Andreas Lorek
- Planetary Laboratories Department, Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Ruthefordstraße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alessandro Maturilli
- Planetary Laboratories Department, Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Ruthefordstraße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alessio Papini
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, Via la Pira 4, 50121, Florence, Italy
| | - Jean-Pierre de Vera
- Microgravity User Support Center (MUSC), Space Operations and Astronaut Training, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Linder Höhe, 51147, Cologne, Germany
| | - Mickaël Baqué
- Planetary Laboratories Department, Institute of Planetary Research, German Aerospace Center (DLR), Ruthefordstraße 2, 12489, Berlin, Germany
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9
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Godin PJ, Moore CA, Smith C, Moores JE. Absorption and Scattering of UV and Visible Light Through Simulated Martian Regoliths and Rock Samples. ASTROBIOLOGY 2023; 23:280-290. [PMID: 36724478 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2021.0184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Ultraviolet shielding materials are potential ecological niches for biosignatures. Finding such materials on Mars would narrow the search for potentially habitable regions. A mini-goniometer was built to collect transmission spectra as a function of scattering angle for Mars analog regoliths (JSC Mars-1, basalt, cheto bentonite, and kieserite) and crystalline rock samples from the Haughton impact structure on Devon Island, Nunavut, in the Canadian High Arctic Archipelago. The transmission through the materials was assessed at ultraviolet and visible wavelengths and at different scattering angles. From the results, it is possible to classify the samples into UV transmitters and UV quenchers. UV transmitters are materials that favor transmittance of UV wavelengths compared to photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), while the UV quenchers are materials that effectively block UV radiation from propagating into the subsurface. Additionally, samples that are effective UV quenchers tend to have more isotropic scattering profiles, whereas UV transmitters tend to favor forward scattering profiles. Samples with greater porosity had greater overall transmission. The depths at which radioresistant microorganisms can exist on present-day Mars are estimated by modeling the transmission for regoliths and crystalline rocks under martian insolation. The depth at which LD90 occurs is found to range down to 0.3 mm, while still allowing up to 1000 kJ/m2 of PAR at those depths. Due to the exceptionally protective nature of JSC Mars-1, intimate mixtures of organisms and regolith will result in some organisms experiencing orders of magnitude less UV flux than others, even when protected by only a single grain of simulant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Godin
- Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Casey A Moore
- Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Christina Smith
- Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - John E Moores
- Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, York University, Toronto, Canada
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10
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Olsson-Francis K, Doran PT, Ilyin V, Raulin F, Rettberg P, Kminek G, Mier MPZ, Coustenis A, Hedman N, Shehhi OA, Ammannito E, Bernardini J, Fujimoto M, Grasset O, Groen F, Hayes A, Gallagher S, Kumar K P, Mustin C, Nakamura A, Seasly E, Suzuki Y, Peng J, Prieto-Ballesteros O, Sinibaldi S, Xu K, Zaitsev M. The COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy for robotic missions to Mars: A review of current scientific knowledge and future perspectives. LIFE SCIENCES IN SPACE RESEARCH 2023; 36:27-35. [PMID: 36682826 DOI: 10.1016/j.lssr.2022.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Planetary protection guidance for martian exploration has become a notable point of discussion over the last decade. This is due to increased scientific interest in the habitability of the red planet with updated techniques, missions becoming more attainable by smaller space agencies, and both the private sector and governments engaging in activities to facilitate commercial opportunities and human-crewed missions. The international standards for planetary protection have been developed through consultation with the scientific community and the space agencies by the Committee on Space Research's (COSPAR) Panel on Planetary Protection, which provides guidance for compliance with the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. In 2021, the Panel evaluated recent scientific data and literature regarding the planetary protection requirements for Mars and the implications of this on the guidelines. In this paper, we discuss the COSPAR Planetary Protection Policy for Mars, review the new scientific findings and discuss the next steps required to enable the next generation of robotic missions to Mars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Olsson-Francis
- AstrobiologyOU, Faculty of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK.
| | - Peter T Doran
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, Louisiana State, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Vyacheslav Ilyin
- Institute for Biomedical Problems, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Francois Raulin
- Univ Paris Est Cr Univ Paris Est Créteil and Université Paris Cité, CNRS, LISA, F-94010 Créteil, France
| | - Petra Rettberg
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Research Group Astrobiology, 51147 Cologne, Germany
| | | | - María-Paz Zorzano Mier
- Centro deAstrobiología (CAB), CSIC-INTA, Carretera de Ajalvir km 4, 28850 Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Athena Coustenis
- LESIA, Paris Observatory, PSL University, CNRS, Paris University, 92195 Meudon Cedex, France
| | - Niklas Hedman
- Committee, Policy and Legal Affairs Section, Office for Outer Space Affairs, United Nations Office at Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | - James Bernardini
- Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546, USA
| | - Masaki Fujimoto
- Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS), Kanagawa, Japan
| | | | - Frank Groen
- Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546, USA
| | - Alex Hayes
- Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-6801, USA
| | - Sarah Gallagher
- Institute of Earth and Space Exploration, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | - Akiko Nakamura
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo,7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Elaine Seasly
- Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC 20546, USA
| | - Yohey Suzuki
- Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tokyo,7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Jing Peng
- China National Space Administration, Beijing, China
| | - Olga Prieto-Ballesteros
- Centro deAstrobiología (CAB), CSIC-INTA, Carretera de Ajalvir km 4, 28850 Torrejón de Ardoz, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Kanyan Xu
- Laboratory of Space Microbiology, Shenzhou Space Biotechnology Group, Chinese Academy of Space Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Maxim Zaitsev
- Planetary Physics Dept., Space Research Inst. of Russian Acad. of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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11
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Miller KM, Tang F, Li S, Mullane KK, Shelton BR, Bui L, Bartlett DH, Nicholson WL. Carnobacterium Species Capable of Growth at Pressures Ranging Over 5 Orders of Magnitude, from the Surface of Mars (10 3 Pa) to Deep Oceans (10 7 Pa) in the Solar System. ASTROBIOLOGY 2023; 23:94-104. [PMID: 36450114 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2022.0043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Several permanently cold solar system bodies are being investigated with regard to their potential habitability, including Mars and icy moons. In such locations, microbial life would have to cope with low temperatures and both high and low pressures, ranging from ∼102 to 103 Pa on the surface of Mars to upward of ∼108-109 Pa in the subsurface oceans of icy moons. The bacterial genus Carnobacterium consists of species that were previously shown to be capable of growth in the absence of oxygen at low temperatures and at either low pressure or high pressure, but to date the entire pressure range of the genus has not been explored. In the present study, we subjected 14 Carnobacterium strains representing 11 species to cultivation in a complex liquid medium under anaerobic conditions at 2°C and at a range of pressures spanning 5 orders of magnitude, from 103 to 107 Pa. Eleven of the 14 strains showed measurable growth rates at all pressures tested, representing the first demonstration of terrestrial life forms capable of growth under such a wide range of pressures. These findings expand the physical boundaries of the capabilities of life to occur in extreme extraterrestrial environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen M Miller
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Merritt Island, USA
| | - Flora Tang
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Sixuan Li
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Kelli K Mullane
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Brontë R Shelton
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Lam Bui
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Douglas H Bartlett
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Wayne L Nicholson
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida, Merritt Island, USA
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12
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Schuerger AC. Microbial Protocols for Spacecraft: 1. Effects of Surface Texture, Low Pressure, and UV Irradiation on Recovery of Microorganisms from Surfaces. ASTROBIOLOGY 2022; 22:1061-1071. [PMID: 35675686 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2021.0141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Modeling risks for the forward contamination of planetary surfaces from endemic bioburdens on landed spacecraft requires precise data on the biocidal effects of space factors on microbial survival. Numerous studies have been published over the preceding 60 years on the survival of diverse microorganisms exposed to solar heating, solar ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, vacuum, ionizing radiation, desiccation, and many other planetary surface conditions. These data were generated with diverse protocols that can impair the interpretations of the results due to dynamic experimental errors inherent in all lab protocols. The current study (1) presents data on how metal surfaces can affect spore adhesion, (2) proposes doping and extraction protocols that can achieve very high recovery rates (close to 100%) from aluminum coupons with four Bacillus spp., (3) establishes a timeline in which dried spores on aluminum coupons should be used to minimize aging effects of spore monolayers, (4) confirms that vacuum alone does not dislodge spores dried on aluminum coupons, and (5) establishes that multiple UV irradiation sources yield similar results if properly cross-calibrated. The protocols are given to advance discussions in the planetary protection community on how to standardize lab protocols to align results from diverse labs into a coherent interpretation of how space conditions will degrade microbial survival over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Schuerger
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Space Life Sciences Lab, Exploration Park, Merritt Island, Florida, USA
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13
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The Ground-Based BIOMEX Experiment Verification Tests for Life Detection on Mars. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11111212. [PMID: 34833088 PMCID: PMC8619271 DOI: 10.3390/life11111212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The success of an astrobiological search for life campaign on Mars, or other planetary bodies in the Solar System, relies on the detectability of past or present microbial life traces, namely, biosignatures. Spectroscopic methods require little or no sample preparation, can be repeated almost endlessly, and can be performed in contact or even remotely. Such methods are therefore ideally suited to use for the detection of biosignatures, which can be confirmed with supporting instrumentation. Here, we discuss the use of Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopies for the detection and characterization of biosignatures from colonies of the fungus Cryomyces antarcticus, grown on Martian analogues and exposed to increasing doses of UV irradiation under dried conditions. The results report significant UV-induced DNA damage, but the non-exceeding of thresholds for allowing DNA amplification and detection, while the spectral properties of the fungal melanin remained unaltered, and pigment detection and identification was achieved via complementary analytical techniques. Finally, this work found that fungal cell wall compounds, likely chitin, were not degraded, and were still detectable even after high UV irradiation doses. The implications for the preservation and detection of biosignatures in extraterrestrial environments are discussed.
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14
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Ye T, Wang B, Li C, Bian P, Chen L, Wang G. Exposure of cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. to the Mars-like stratosphere environment. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY B-BIOLOGY 2021; 224:112307. [PMID: 34649187 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2021.112307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
During the HH-19-2 flight mission of the Chinese Scientific Experimental System, dried Nostoc sp. cells were exposed to the stratosphere environment (32,508 m altitude) for 3 h and 22 min. The atmospheric pressure, temperature, relative humidity, and ionizing and non-ionizing radiation levels at that altitude are similar to those on the surface of Mars. Although analyses revealed decreased photosynthetic activity, a decline in autofluorescence, and damage to the cellular morphology in the flight-exposed sample, the death rate was low (28%). Physiological changes were not obvious after the exposure to the Mars-like vacuum conditions. The ground-exposed samples showed a similar trend to the flight-exposed samples, but the damage was relatively slight. RNA-sequencing data revealed a number of affected metabolic pathways: photosynthetic system and CO2 fixation function, activation of antioxidant systems, heat shock protein, DNA repair, and protein synthesis. Results suggest that Nostoc sp. has the potential to survive in a Mars-like environment and that it may be a suitable pioneer species to colonize Mars in the future in closed life-support systems (base) or in localities with relatively suitable conditions for life, such as localities with water available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Ye
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Bo Wang
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Caiyan Li
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Po Bian
- Key Laboratory of Ion Beam Bio-engineering, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Lanzhou Chen
- School of Resource & Environmental Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, PR China
| | - Gaohong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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15
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Fernández-Martínez MÁ, García-Villadangos M, Moreno-Paz M, Gangloff V, Carrizo D, Blanco Y, González S, Sánchez-García L, Prieto-Ballesteros O, Altshuler I, Whyte LG, Parro V, Fairén AG. Geomicrobiological Heterogeneity of Lithic Habitats in the Extreme Environment of Antarctic Nunataks: A Potential Early Mars Analog. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:670982. [PMID: 34276605 PMCID: PMC8284421 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.670982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Nunataks are permanent ice-free rocky peaks that project above ice caps in polar regions, thus being exposed to extreme climatic conditions throughout the year. They undergo extremely low temperatures and scarcity of liquid water in winter, while receiving high incident and reflected (albedo) UVA-B radiation in summer. Here, we investigate the geomicrobiology of the permanently exposed lithic substrates of nunataks from Livingston Island (South Shetlands, Antarctic Peninsula), with focus on prokaryotic community structure and their main metabolic traits. Contrarily to first hypothesis, an extensive sampling based on different gradients and multianalytical approaches demonstrated significant differences for most geomicrobiological parameters between the bedrock, soil, and loose rock substrates, which overlapped any other regional variation. Brevibacillus genus dominated on bedrock and soil substrates, while loose rocks contained a diverse microbial community, including Actinobacteria, Alphaproteobacteria and abundant Cyanobacteria inhabiting the milder and diverse microhabitats within. Archaea, a domain never described before in similar Antarctic environments, were also consistently found in the three substrates, but being more abundant and potentially more active in soils. Stable isotopic ratios of total carbon (δ 13C) and nitrogen (δ 15N), soluble anions concentrations, and the detection of proteins involved in key metabolisms via the Life Detector Chip (LDChip), suggest that microbial primary production has a pivotal role in nutrient cycling at these exposed areas with limited deposition of nutrients. Detection of stress-resistance proteins, such as molecular chaperons, suggests microbial molecular adaptation mechanisms to cope with these harsh conditions. Since early Mars may have encompassed analogous environmental conditions as the ones found in these Antarctic nunataks, our study also contributes to the understanding of the metabolic features and biomarker profiles of a potential Martian microbiota, as well as the use of LDChip in future life detection missions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Ángel Fernández-Martínez
- Centro de Astrobiología, CSIC-INTA, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Sergi González
- Antarctic Group, Agencia Estatal de Meteorología, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | - Ianina Altshuler
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Lyle G Whyte
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC, Canada
| | - Victor Parro
- Centro de Astrobiología, CSIC-INTA, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alberto G Fairén
- Centro de Astrobiología, CSIC-INTA, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Astronomy, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
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16
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Schwendner P, Nguyen AN, Schuerger AC. Use of NanoSIMS to Identify the Lower Limits of Metabolic Activity and Growth by Serratia liquefaciens Exposed to Sub-Zero Temperatures. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11050459. [PMID: 34065549 PMCID: PMC8161314 DOI: 10.3390/life11050459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Serratia liquefaciens is a cold-adapted facultative anaerobic astrobiology model organism with the ability to grow at a Martian atmospheric pressure of 7 hPa. Currently there is a lack of data on its limits of growth and metabolic activity at sub-zero temperatures found in potential habitable regions on Mars. Growth curves and nano-scale secondary ion mass spectrometry (NanoSIMS) were used to characterize the growth and metabolic threshold for S. liquefaciens ATCC 27,592 grown at and below 0 °C. Cells were incubated in Spizizen medium containing three stable isotopes substituting their unlabeled counterparts; i.e., 13C-glucose, (15NH4)2SO4, and H218O; at 0, −1.5, −3, −5, −10, or −15 °C. The isotopic ratios of 13C/12C, 15N/14N, and 18O/16O and their corresponding fractions were determined for 240 cells. NanoSIMS results revealed that with decreasing temperature the cellular amounts of labeled ions decreased indicating slower metabolic rates for isotope uptake and incorporation. Metabolism was significantly reduced at −1.5 and −3 °C, almost halted at −5 °C, and shut-down completely at or below −10 °C. While growth was observed at 0 °C after 5 days, samples incubated at −1.5 and −3 °C exhibited significantly slower growth rates until growth was detected at 70 days. In contrast, cell densities decreased by at least half an order of magnitude over 70 days in cultures incubated at ≤ −5 °C. Results suggest that S. liquefaciens, if transported to Mars, might be able to metabolize and grow in shallow sub-surface niches at temperatures above −5 °C and might survive—but not grow—at temperatures below −5 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Schwendner
- Space Life Sciences Lab, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, 505 Odyssey Way, Exploration Park, Merritt Island, FL 32953, USA;
- Correspondence:
| | - Ann N. Nguyen
- Jacobs, NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX 77058, USA;
| | - Andrew C. Schuerger
- Space Life Sciences Lab, Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, 505 Odyssey Way, Exploration Park, Merritt Island, FL 32953, USA;
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17
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Wang B, Ye T, Li X, Bian P, Liu Y, Wang G. Survival of desert algae Chlorella exposed to Mars-like near space environment. LIFE SCIENCES IN SPACE RESEARCH 2021; 29:22-29. [PMID: 33888284 DOI: 10.1016/j.lssr.2021.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Desert was considered terrestrial analogues of Mars. In this study, dried cells of desert green algae Chlorella were exposed to Mars-like near-space environment using high-altitude scientific balloons. We found that while a majority of Chlorella cells survived, they exhibited considerable damage, such as low photosynthetic activity, reduced cell growth, increased cell mortality rate, and altered chloroplast and mitochondrial ultrastructure. Additionally, transcriptome analysis of near space-exposed Chlorella cells revealed 3292 differentially expressed genes compared to cells in the control ground group, including heat shock proteins, antioxidant enzymes, DNA repair systems, as well as proteins related to the PSII apparatus and ribosomes. These data shed light on the possible survival strategy of desert algae to near space environments. Our results indicated that Mars-like near space conditions represent an extreme environment for desert algae in terms of temperature, pressure, and radiations. The survival strategy of Chlorella in response to near space will help gain insights into the possibility of extremophile colonization on the surface of Mars and in similar extraterrestrial habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Wang
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Tong Ye
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiaoyan Li
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Po Bian
- Key Laboratory of Ion Beam Bio-engineering, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui 230031, China
| | - Yongding Liu
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Gaohong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Algal Biology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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18
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Razzell Hollis J, Fornaro T, Rapin W, Wade J, Vicente-Retortillo Á, Steele A, Bhartia R, Beegle LW. Detection and Degradation of Adenosine Monophosphate in Perchlorate-Spiked Martian Regolith Analog, by Deep-Ultraviolet Spectroscopy. ASTROBIOLOGY 2021; 21:511-525. [PMID: 33493410 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2020.2362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The search for organic biosignatures on Mars will depend on finding material protected from the destructive ambient radiation. Solar ultraviolet can induce photochemical degradation of organic compounds, but certain clays have been shown to preserve organic material. We examine how the SHERLOC instrument on the upcoming Mars 2020 mission will use deep-ultraviolet (UV) (248.6 nm) Raman and fluorescence spectroscopy to detect a plausible biosignature of adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP) adsorbed onto Ca-montmorillonite clay. We found that the spectral signature of AMP is not altered by adsorption in the clay matrix but does change with prolonged exposure to the UV laser over dosages equivalent to 0.2-6 sols of ambient martian UV. For pure AMP, UV exposure leads to breaking of the aromatic adenine unit, but in the presence of clay the degradation is limited to minor alteration with new Raman peaks and increased fluorescence consistent with formation of 2-hydroxyadenosine, while 1 wt % Mg perchlorate increases the rate of degradation. Our results confirm that clays are effective preservers of organic material and should be considered high-value targets, but that pristine biosignatures may be altered within 1 sol of martian UV exposure, with implications for Mars 2020 science operations and sample caching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Razzell Hollis
- NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Teresa Fornaro
- Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
- INAF-Astrophysical Observatory of Arcetri, Florence, Italy
| | - William Rapin
- Department of Geological and Planetary Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
- Sorbonne Université, IMPMC, CNRS, Paris, France
| | - Jessica Wade
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Álvaro Vicente-Retortillo
- Department of Climate and Space Sciences and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
- Centro de Astrobiología (CSIC-INTA), Torrejón de Ardoz, Spain
| | - Andrew Steele
- Carnegie Institution for Science, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
| | | | - Luther W Beegle
- NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
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19
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Simões MF, Antunes A. Microbial Pathogenicity in Space. Pathogens 2021; 10:450. [PMID: 33918768 PMCID: PMC8069885 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10040450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
After a less dynamic period, space exploration is now booming. There has been a sharp increase in the number of current missions and also of those being planned for the near future. Microorganisms will be an inevitable component of these missions, mostly because they hitchhike, either attached to space technology, like spaceships or spacesuits, to organic matter and even to us (human microbiome), or to other life forms we carry on our missions. Basically, we never travel alone. Therefore, we need to have a clear understanding of how dangerous our "travel buddies" can be; given that, during space missions, our access to medical assistance and medical drugs will be very limited. Do we explore space together with pathogenic microorganisms? Do our hitchhikers adapt to the space conditions, as well as we do? Do they become pathogenic during that adaptation process? The current review intends to better clarify these questions in order to facilitate future activities in space. More technological advances are needed to guarantee the success of all missions and assure the reduction of any possible health and environmental risks for the astronauts and for the locations being explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Filipa Simões
- State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Sciences (SKLPlanets), Macau University of Science and Technology (MUST), Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau, China;
- China National Space Administration (CNSA), Macau Center for Space Exploration and Science, Macau, China
| | - André Antunes
- State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Sciences (SKLPlanets), Macau University of Science and Technology (MUST), Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau, China;
- China National Space Administration (CNSA), Macau Center for Space Exploration and Science, Macau, China
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20
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Godin PJ, Schuerger AC, Moores JE. Salt Tolerance and UV Protection of Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus faecalis under Simulated Martian Conditions. ASTROBIOLOGY 2021; 21:394-404. [PMID: 33237800 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2020.2285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation on the surface of Mars is an important factor that affects the survivability of microorganisms on Mars. The possibility of martian brines made from Fe2(SO4)3, MnSO4, and MgSO4 salts providing a habitable niche on Mars via attenuation of UV radiation was investigated on the bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus faecalis. Results demonstrate that it is possible for brines containing Fe2(SO4)3 on Mars to provide protection from harmful UV irradiation, even at concentrations as low as 0.5%. Brines made from MnSO4 and MgSO4 did not provide significant UV protection, and most spores/cells died over the course of short-term experiments. However, Fe2(SO4)3 brines are strongly acidic and thus were lethal to E. faecalis, when cells were exposed for 7 days. In contrast, B. subtilis, a spore-forming bacterium resistant to pH extremes, was unaffected by the acidic conditions of the brines and did not experience any significant lethal effects in Fe2(SO4)3. Any extant microbial life in martian Fe2(SO4)3 brines (if present) would need to be capable of surviving acidic environments, if these brines are to be considered a possible habitable niche. The results from this work are important to the search for life on planets with atmospheres that do not significantly attenuate UV radiation (i.e., like Mars) and to planetary protection, since it is possible that terrestrial bacteria in the genus Bacillus are likely to survive in Fe-sulfate brines on Mars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Godin
- Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, York University, Toronto, Canada
| | - Andrew C Schuerger
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Space Life Sciences Lab, Merritt Island, Florida, USA
| | - John E Moores
- Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, York University, Toronto, Canada
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21
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Cortesão M, Siems K, Koch S, Beblo-Vranesevic K, Rabbow E, Berger T, Lane M, James L, Johnson P, Waters SM, Verma SD, Smith DJ, Moeller R. MARSBOx: Fungal and Bacterial Endurance From a Balloon-Flown Analog Mission in the Stratosphere. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:601713. [PMID: 33692763 PMCID: PMC7937622 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.601713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Whether terrestrial life can withstand the martian environment is of paramount interest for planetary protection measures and space exploration. To understand microbial survival potential in Mars-like conditions, several fungal and bacterial samples were launched in September 2019 on a large NASA scientific balloon flight to the middle stratosphere (∼38 km altitude) where radiation levels resembled values at the equatorial Mars surface. Fungal spores of Aspergillus niger and bacterial cells of Salinisphaera shabanensis, Staphylococcus capitis subsp. capitis, and Buttiauxella sp. MASE-IM-9 were launched inside the MARSBOx (Microbes in Atmosphere for Radiation, Survival, and Biological Outcomes Experiment) payload filled with an artificial martian atmosphere and pressure throughout the mission profile. The dried microorganisms were either exposed to full UV-VIS radiation (UV dose = 1148 kJ m-2) or were shielded from radiation. After the 5-h stratospheric exposure, samples were assayed for survival and metabolic changes. Spores from the fungus A. niger and cells from the Gram-(-) bacterium S. shabanensis were the most resistant with a 2- and 4-log reduction, respectively. Exposed Buttiauxella sp. MASE-IM-9 was completely inactivated (both with and without UV exposure) and S. capitis subsp. capitis only survived the UV shielded experimental condition (3-log reduction). Our results underscore a wide variation in survival phenotypes of spacecraft associated microorganisms and support the hypothesis that pigmented fungi may be resistant to the martian surface if inadvertently delivered by spacecraft missions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Cortesão
- Aerospace Microbiology Research Group, Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Katharina Siems
- Aerospace Microbiology Research Group, Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Stella Koch
- Aerospace Microbiology Research Group, Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Kristina Beblo-Vranesevic
- Astrobiology Research Group, Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Elke Rabbow
- Astrobiology Research Group, Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Thomas Berger
- Biophysics Research Group, Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Michael Lane
- NASA Kennedy Space Center, Engineering Directorate, Kennedy Space Center, Merritt Island, FL, United States
| | - Leandro James
- NASA Kennedy Space Center, Engineering Directorate, Kennedy Space Center, Merritt Island, FL, United States
| | - Prital Johnson
- NASA Kennedy Space Center, Engineering Directorate, Kennedy Space Center, Merritt Island, FL, United States
| | - Samantha M. Waters
- Universities Space Research Association, Moffett Field, CA, United States
- NASA Ames Research Center, Space Biosciences Research Branch, Moffett Field, CA, United States
| | - Sonali D. Verma
- NASA Ames Research Center, Space Biosciences Research Branch, Moffett Field, CA, United States
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Moffett Field, CA, United States
| | - David J. Smith
- NASA Ames Research Center, Space Biosciences Research Branch, Moffett Field, CA, United States
| | - Ralf Moeller
- Aerospace Microbiology Research Group, Department of Radiation Biology, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
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Moores JE, Schuerger AC. A Cruise-Phase Microbial Survival Model for Calculating Bioburden Reductions on Past or Future Spacecraft Throughout Their Missions with Application to Europa Clipper. ASTROBIOLOGY 2020; 20:1450-1464. [PMID: 32955919 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2019.2205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
During transit between the Earth and planetary destinations, spacecraft encounter conditions that are deleterious to the survival of terrestrial microorganisms. To model the resulting bioburden reduction, a Cruise-Phase Microbial Survival (CPMS) model was prepared based upon the Lunar Microbial Survival model, which considers the effects of temperature, vacuum, ultraviolet (UV), and ionizing radiation found in the space environment. As an example, the CPMS was used to determine the expected bioburden reductions on the Europa Clipper spacecraft upon arrival at Jupiter under two different transit scenarios. Under a direct trajectory scenario, exterior surfaces are rapidly sterilized with tens of thousands of lethal doses (LDs) absorbed to the spacecraft exterior and at least one LD to all interior spaces of the spacecraft heated to at least 240 K. Under a Venus-Earth-Earth gravity assist (VEEGA) trajectory, we find substantially higher bioburden reductions resulting from the spacecraft spending much more time near the Sun and more time in transit overall. With VEEGA, the exterior absorbs hundreds of thousands of LDs and interior surfaces heated above 230 K would absorb at least one LD. From these simulations, we are able to generalize about bioburden reduction in transit on spacecraft in general, finding that all spacecraft surfaces would sustain at least one LD in ≤38.5 years even if completely unheated. Temperature and vacuum synergy dominates surface reductions out to at most 3.3 AU (for gold multilayer insulation), UV irradiation and temperature between 3.3 and 600 AU, and past 600 AU the effect of vacuum acting alone is the primary factor for all exterior and interior surfaces. Even under the most conservative estimates, if the average interior temperature of the Cassini spacecraft exceeded 218 K, or the Galileo spacecraft interior exceeded 222 K, neither spacecraft would have likely had any viable bioburdens onboard at disposal.
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Affiliation(s)
- John E Moores
- Department of Earth and Space Science and Engineering, Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Andrew C Schuerger
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Merritt Island, Florida, USA
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Schwendner P, Jobson ME, Schuerger AC. Addition of anaerobic electron acceptors to solid media did not enhance growth of 125 spacecraft bacteria under simulated low-pressure Martian conditions. Sci Rep 2020; 10:18290. [PMID: 33106561 PMCID: PMC7588431 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-75222-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
To protect Mars from microbial contamination, research on growth of microorganisms found in spacecraft assembly clean rooms under simulated Martian conditions is required. This study investigated the effects of low atmospheric pressure on the growth of chemoorganotrophic spacecraft bacteria and whether the addition of Mars relevant anaerobic electron acceptors might enhance growth. The 125 bacteria screened here were recovered from actual Mars spacecraft. Growth at 7 hPa, 0 °C, and a CO2-enriched anoxic atmosphere (called low-PTA conditions) was tested on five TSA-based media supplemented with anaerobic electron acceptors. None of the 125 spacecraft bacteria showed active growth under the tested low-PTA conditions and amended media. In contrast, a decrease in viability was observed in most cases. Growth curves of two hypopiezotolerant strains, Serratia liquefaciens and Trichococcus pasteurii, were performed to quantify the effects of the added anaerobic electron acceptors. Slight variations in growth rates were determined for both bacteria. However, the final cell densities were similar for all media tested, indicating no general preference for any specific anaerobic electron acceptor. By demonstrating that a broad diversity of chemoorganotrophic and culturable spacecraft bacteria do not grow under the tested conditions, we conclude that there may be low risk of growth of chemoorganotrophic bacteria typically recovered from Mars spacecraft during planetary protection bioburden screenings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Schwendner
- Space Life Sciences Lab, University of Florida, 505 Odyssey Way, Exploration Park, Merritt Island, FL, 32953, USA.
| | - Mary-Elizabeth Jobson
- Space Life Sciences Lab, University of Florida, 505 Odyssey Way, Exploration Park, Merritt Island, FL, 32953, USA
| | - Andrew C Schuerger
- Space Life Sciences Lab, University of Florida, 505 Odyssey Way, Exploration Park, Merritt Island, FL, 32953, USA
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24
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Wang G, Tang K, Meng Z, Liu P, Mo S, Mehrjou B, Wang H, Liu X, Wu Z, Chu PK. A Quantitative Bacteria Monitoring and Killing Platform Based on Electron Transfer from Bacteria to a Semiconductor. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e2003616. [PMID: 32815249 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202003616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A platform with both bacteria killing and sensing capabilities is crucial for monitoring the entire bacteria-related process on biomaterials and biomedical devices. Electron transfer (ET) between the bacteria and a Au-loaded semiconductor (ZnO) is observed to be the primary factor for effective bacteria sensing and fast bacteria killing. The electrons produce a saturation current that varies linearly with the bacteria number, semi-logarithmically, with R2 of 0.98825, thus providing an excellent tool to count bacteria quantitatively in real-time. Furthermore, ET leads to continuous electron loss killing of about 80% of Escherichia coli in only 1 h without light. The modularity and extendability of this ET-based platform are also demonstrated by the excellent results obtained from other semiconductor/substrate systems and the stability is confirmed by recycling tests. The underlying mechanism for the dual functions is not due to conventional attributed Zn2+ leaching or photocatalysis but instead electrical interactions upon direct contact. The results reveal the capability of real-time detection of bacteria based on ET while providing information about the antibacterial behavior of ZnO-based materials especially in the early stage. The concept can be readily incorporated into the design of smart and miniaturized devices that can sense and kill bacteria simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guomin Wang
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Kaiwei Tang
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Zheyi Meng
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Pei Liu
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Shi Mo
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Babak Mehrjou
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
| | - Huaiyu Wang
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Xuanyong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200050, China
| | - Zhengwei Wu
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
- Department of Engineering and Applied Physics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, China
| | - Paul K Chu
- Department of Physics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, and Department of Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, 999077, China
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25
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Pacelli C, Cassaro A, Aureli L, Moeller R, Fujimori A, Onofri S. The Responses of the Black Fungus Cryomyces Antarcticus to High Doses of Accelerated Helium Ions Radiation within Martian Regolith Simulants and Their Relevance for Mars. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:E130. [PMID: 32752063 PMCID: PMC7459982 DOI: 10.3390/life10080130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the primary current astrobiological goals is to understand the limits of microbial resistance to extraterrestrial conditions. Much attention is paid to ionizing radiation, since it can prevent the preservation and spread of life outside the Earth. The aim of this research was to study the impact of accelerated He ions (150 MeV/n, up to 1 kGy) as a component of the galactic cosmic rays on the black fungus C. antarcticus when mixed with Antarctic sandstones-the substratum of its natural habitat-and two Martian regolith simulants, which mimics two different evolutionary stages of Mars. The high dose of 1 kGy was used to assess the effect of dose accumulation in dormant cells within minerals, under long-term irradiation estimated on a geological time scale. The data obtained suggests that viable Earth-like microorganisms can be preserved in the dormant state in the near-surface scenario for approximately 322,000 and 110,000 Earth years within Martian regolith that mimic early and present Mars environmental conditions, respectively. In addition, the results of the study indicate the possibility of maintaining traces within regolith, as demonstrated by the identification of melanin pigments through UltraViolet-visible (UV-vis) spectrophotometric approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Pacelli
- Italian Space Agency, Via del Politecnico snc, 00133 Rome, Italy;
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (L.A.); (S.O.)
| | - Alessia Cassaro
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (L.A.); (S.O.)
| | - Lorenzo Aureli
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (L.A.); (S.O.)
| | - Ralf Moeller
- German Aerospace Center, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, Radiation Biology Department, Space Microbiology Research Group, DLR, Linder Höhe, D-51147 Köln, Germany; or
- Department of Natural Science, University of Applied Sciences Bonn-Rhein-Sieg (BRSU), von-Liebig-Straße 20, D-53359 Rheinbach, Germany
| | - Akira Fujimori
- Molecular and Cellular Radiation Biology Group, Department of Basic Medical Sciences for Radiation Damages, NIRS/QST, Chiba 263-8555, Japan;
| | - Silvano Onofri
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Largo dell’Università snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy; (L.A.); (S.O.)
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26
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Fayolle EC, Noell AC, Johnson PV, Hodyss R, Ponce A. Viability of Bacillus subtilis Spores Exposed to Ultraviolet Light at Ocean World Surface Temperatures. ASTROBIOLOGY 2020; 20:889-896. [PMID: 32580565 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2019.2214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This work investigated microorganism survival under temperature and ultraviolet (UV) radiation conditions found at the surface of ice-covered ocean worlds. These studies were motivated by a desire to understand the ability of resilient forms of life to survive under such conditions as a proxy for potential endogenic life and to inform planetary protection protocols for future missions. To accomplish this, we irradiated Bacillus subtilis spores with solar-like UV photons at temperatures ranging from room temperature down to 11 K and reported survival fractions with respect to fluence. We observed an increase in survival at low temperatures and found that the inactivation rate follows an Arrhenius-type behavior above 60 K. For solar-photon fluxes and surface temperatures at Europa and Enceladus, we found that Bacillus subtilis spores would be inactivated in less than an hour when in direct sunlight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edith C Fayolle
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Aaron C Noell
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Paul V Johnson
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Robert Hodyss
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
| | - Adrian Ponce
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
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27
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The Hypopiezotolerant Bacterium, Serratia liquefaciens, Failed to Grow in Mars Analog Soils under Simulated Martian Conditions at 7 hPa. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:life10060077. [PMID: 32466370 PMCID: PMC7344922 DOI: 10.3390/life10060077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The search for life on Mars is predicated on the idea that Earth and Mars life (if present) should be both carbon- and water-based with similar forms of evolution. However, the astrobiology community can currently only investigate plausible Martian microbial ecosystems by using Terran life-forms as proxies. In order to examine how life might persist on Mars, we used a hypopiezotolerant bacterium (def., able to grow at 7-10 hPa)-Serratia liquefaciens-in growth assays with four Mars analog soils conducted under a subset of simulated Martian conditions including 7 hPa, 0 °C, and a CO2-enriched anoxic atmosphere (called low-PTA conditions). The four Mars analog soils included an Aeolian dust analog, the Mars JSC-1 analog, a Phoenix lander-site simulant, and a high-Salts analog. Serratia liquefaciens cells were able to grow at 30 °C in a liquid minimal basal medium (MBM) supplemented with 10- or 20-mM sucrose, Spizizen salts, and micronutrients. When the four analog soils were doped with both MBM and cells of S. liquefaciens, and subsequently incubated at 30 °C for 72 h, cell densities increased between 2-logs (Phoenix analog) and 4-logs (Aeolian and JSC-1 analogs); the Salts analog led to complete inactivation of S. liquefaciens within 24 h. In contrast, when the experiment was repeated, but incubated under low-PTA conditions, S. liquefaciens cells were either killed immediately by the Salts analog, or decreased by > 5 logs over 28 d by the Aeolian, JSC-1, and Phoenix analogs. The failure of S. liquefaciens to grow in the analog soils under low-PTA conditions was attributed to the synergistic interactions among six factors (i.e., low pressure, low temperature, anoxic atmosphere (i.e., the low-PTA conditions), low-pH in the Salts soil, dissolved salts in all analogs, and oligotrophic conditions) that increased the biocidal or inhibitory conditions within the analog soils. Results suggest that even if a hypopiezotolerant Terran microbe is displaced from a spacecraft surface on Mars, and lands in a hydrated and nutrient-rich niche, growth in the Martian regolith is not automatically assured.
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28
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Meyer M, Bakermans C, Beaty D, Bernard D, Boston P, Chevrier V, Conley C, Feustel I, Gough R, Glotch T, Hays L, Junge K, Lindberg R, Mellon M, Mischna M, Neal CR, Pugel B, Quinn R, Raulin F, Rennó N, Rummel J, Schulte M, Spry A, Stabekis P, Wang A, Yee N. Report of the Joint Workshop on Induced Special Regions. LIFE SCIENCES IN SPACE RESEARCH 2019; 23:50-59. [PMID: 31791605 DOI: 10.1016/j.lssr.2019.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The Joint Workshop on Induced Special Regions convened scientists and planetary protection experts to assess the potential of inducing special regions through lander or rover activity. An Induced Special Region is defined as a place where the presence of the spacecraft could induce water activity and temperature to be sufficiently high and persist for long enough to plausibly harbor life. The questions the workshop participants addressed were: (1) What is a safe stand-off distance, or formula to derive a safe distance, to a purported special region? (2) Questions about RTGs (Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator), other heat sources, and their ability to induce special regions. (3) Is it possible to have an infected area on Mars that does not contaminate the rest of Mars? The workshop participants reached a general consensus addressing the posed questions, in summary: (1) While a spacecraft on the surface of Mars may not be able to explore a special region during the prime mission, the safe stand-off distance would decrease with time because the sterilizing environment, that is the martian surface would progressively clean the exposed surfaces. However, the analysis supporting such an exploration should ensure that the risk to exposing interior portions of the spacecraft (i.e., essentially unsterilized) to the martian surface is minimized. (2) An RTG at the surface of Mars would not create a Special Region but the short-term result depends on kinetics of melting, freezing, deliquescence, and desiccation. While a buried RTG could induce a Special Region, it would not pose a long-term contamination threat to Mars, with the possible exception of a migrating RTG in an icy deposit. (3) Induced Special Regions can allow microbial replication to occur (by definition), but such replication at the surface is unlikely to globally contaminate Mars. An induced subsurface Special Region would be isolated and microbial transport away from subsurface site is highly improbable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Meyer
- Science Mission Directorate, NASA HQ, Washington DC, United States.
| | - Corien Bakermans
- Microbiology, Division of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Penn State University, Altoona, United States
| | - David Beaty
- Mars Exploration Directorate, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, United States
| | - Douglas Bernard
- Engineering and Science Directorate, Jet Propusion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, United States
| | - Penelope Boston
- NASA Astrobiology Institute, Ames Research Center, Mountain View, United States
| | - Vincent Chevrier
- Arkansas Center for Space and Planetary Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, United States
| | - Catharine Conley
- Science Mission Directorate, NASA HQ, Washington DC, United States
| | - Ingrid Feustel
- Chemical Control Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, United States
| | - Raina Gough
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, United States
| | - Timothy Glotch
- Department of Geosciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, United States
| | - Lindsay Hays
- NASA Astrobiology Institute, Ames Research Center, Mountain View, United States
| | - Karen Junge
- Applied Physics Lab. University Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Robert Lindberg
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University Virginia, Charlottesville, United States
| | - Michael Mellon
- Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, United States
| | - Michael Mischna
- Engineering and Science Directorate, Jet Propusion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, United States
| | - Clive R Neal
- College of Engineering, University Notre Dame, Notre Dame, United States
| | - Betsy Pugel
- Science Mission Directorate, NASA HQ, Washington DC, United States
| | - Richard Quinn
- Applied Physics Lab. University Washington, Seattle, United States
| | - Francois Raulin
- LISA, UMR CNRS 7583, Université Paris-Est-Créteil, Université de Paris, Institut Pierre Simon Laplace, Créteil, France
| | - Nilton Rennó
- Climate and Space Sciences and Engineering, University Michigan, Ann Arbor, United States
| | - John Rummel
- SETI Institute, Mountain View, United States
| | - Mitchell Schulte
- Science Mission Directorate, NASA HQ, Washington DC, United States
| | - Andrew Spry
- SETI Institute, Mountain View, United States
| | | | - Alian Wang
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Washington University, St. Louis, United States
| | - Nathan Yee
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, United States
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29
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Shen J, Zerkle AL, Stueeken E, Claire MW. Nitrates as a Potential N Supply for Microbial Ecosystems in a Hyperarid Mars Analog System. Life (Basel) 2019; 9:life9040079. [PMID: 31635024 PMCID: PMC6958444 DOI: 10.3390/life9040079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Nitrate is common in Mars sediments owing to long-term atmospheric photolysis, oxidation, and potentially, impact shock heating. The Atacama Desert in Chile, which is the driest region on Earth and rich in nitrate deposits, is used as a Mars analog in this study to explore the potential effects of high nitrate levels on growth of extremophilic ecosystems. Seven study sites sampled across an aridity gradient in the Atacama Desert were categorized into 3 clusters—hyperarid, middle, and arid sites—as defined by essential soil physical and chemical properties. Intriguingly, the distribution of nitrate concentrations in the shallow subsurface suggests that the buildup of nitrate is not solely controlled by precipitation. Correlations of nitrate with SiO2/Al2O3 and grain sizes suggest that sedimentation rates may also be important in controlling nitrate distribution. At arid sites receiving more than 10 mm/yr precipitation, rainfall shows a stronger impact on biomass than nitrate does. However, high nitrate to organic carbon ratios are generally beneficial to N assimilation, as evidenced both by soil geochemistry and enriched culturing experiments. This study suggests that even in the absence of precipitation, nitrate levels on a more recent, hyperarid Mars could be sufficiently high to benefit potentially extant Martian microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianxun Shen
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Centre for Exoplanet Science, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9AL, Scotland, UK.
| | - Aubrey L Zerkle
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Centre for Exoplanet Science, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9AL, Scotland, UK.
| | - Eva Stueeken
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Centre for Exoplanet Science, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9AL, Scotland, UK.
| | - Mark W Claire
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Centre for Exoplanet Science, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9AL, Scotland, UK.
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Microscopic Characterization of Biological and Inert Particles Associated with Spacecraft Assembly Cleanroom. Sci Rep 2019; 9:14251. [PMID: 31582832 PMCID: PMC6776515 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-50782-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
NASA cleanrooms are certified by particle counts and are humidity-controlled, temperature-regulated, and oligotrophic in nature for assembling spacecraft subsystems. Microorganisms, which are not part of the cleanroom certification metrics, should not be overlooked when assessing the cleanliness of the facility since they can enter through soil or air, shed from humans, adapt to the oligotrophic conditions, and subsequently could contaminate spacecraft. These biogenic particles need to be identified to extend our knowledge of biological contamination for future NASA mission use. This study collected particles from the cleanroom and estimated the distribution of fallout microbial cell and inert dust particles using microscopy and molecular techniques. Aluminum coupon-based polycarbonate filter assemblies were deployed in the spacecraft assembly cleanroom facility to collect fallout particles. Epifluorescence and electron microscopy showed that particles varied in size and structure, and displayed live/dead biological and inert particle signatures from sources that include spores and fungal hyphae. Additionally, correlative epifluorescence and field emission scanning electron microscopy, combined with energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (for elemental compositions) methods, differentiated whether microbes adhering to particles were live/dead cells or inert particles. This visualization approach allowed for the classification of microorganisms as being standalone (free-living) or associated with a particle, as well as its characteristic size. Furthermore, time-course microscopy was used to determine the microbial cell growth and confirm the biological/molecular identification. Routine investigation of cleanroom biological and inert fallout particles will help to determine the biological load of spacecraft components and will also have direct relevance to the pharmaceutical and medical industries. One of the main objectives for NASA’s current and future missions is to prevent forward and back contamination of exploring planets. The goal of this study is to determine the association of microorganisms with the inert, natural cleanroom fallout particles and to ascertain whether microorganisms prefer to adhere to a particle size. A novel microscopy technique was developed, and by utilizing various molecular techniques, particles and associated microbial phylogeny were characterized. An accurate assessment of the microbes associated with cleanroom particles is necessary to protect the health of the people who occupy the room for long duration for aeronautical, medical, and pharmaceutical industries.
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Mojarro A, Hachey J, Bailey R, Brown M, Doebler R, Ruvkun G, Zuber MT, Carr CE. Nucleic Acid Extraction and Sequencing from Low-Biomass Synthetic Mars Analog Soils for In Situ Life Detection. ASTROBIOLOGY 2019; 19:1139-1152. [PMID: 31204862 PMCID: PMC6708270 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2018.1929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies regarding the origins of life and Mars-Earth meteorite transfer simulations suggest that biological informational polymers, such as nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), have the potential to provide unambiguous evidence of life on Mars. To this end, we are developing a metagenomics-based life-detection instrument which integrates nucleic acid extraction and nanopore sequencing: the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Genomes (SETG). Our goal is to isolate and sequence nucleic acids from extant or preserved life on Mars in order to determine if a particular genetic sequence (1) is distantly related to life on Earth, indicating a shared ancestry due to lithological exchange, or (2) is unrelated to life on Earth, suggesting convergent origins of life on Mars. In this study, we validate prior work on nucleic acid extraction from cells deposited in Mars analog soils down to microbial concentrations (i.e., 104 cells in 50 mg of soil) observed in the driest and coldest regions on Earth. In addition, we report low-input nanopore sequencing results from 2 pg of purified Bacillus subtilis spore DNA simulating ideal extraction yields equivalent to 1 ppb life-detection sensitivity. We achieve this by employing carrier sequencing, a method of sequencing sub-nanogram DNA in the background of a genomic carrier. After filtering of carrier, low-quality, and low-complexity reads we detected 5 B. subtilis reads, 18 contamination reads (including Homo sapiens), and 6 high-quality noise reads believed to be sequencing artifacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel Mojarro
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Address correspondence to: Angel Mojarro, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Room E25-647, Cambridge, MA 02139
| | | | - Ryan Bailey
- Claremont Biosolutions, LLC, Upland, California
| | - Mark Brown
- Claremont Biosolutions, LLC, Upland, California
| | | | - Gary Ruvkun
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Maria T. Zuber
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Christopher E. Carr
- Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Department of Molecular Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
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32
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Habitability of Mars: How Welcoming Are the Surface and Subsurface to Life on the Red Planet? GEOSCIENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/geosciences9090361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mars is a planet of great interest in the search for signatures of past or present life beyond Earth. The years of research, and more advanced instrumentation, have yielded a lot of evidence which may be considered by the scientific community as proof of past or present habitability of Mars. Recent discoveries including seasonal methane releases and a subglacial lake are exciting, yet challenging findings. Concurrently, laboratory and environmental studies on the limits of microbial life in extreme environments on Earth broaden our knowledge of the possibility of Mars habitability. In this review, we aim to: (1) Discuss the characteristics of the Martian surface and subsurface that may be conducive to habitability either in the past or at present; (2) discuss laboratory-based studies on Earth that provide us with discoveries on the limits of life; and (3) summarize the current state of knowledge in terms of direction for future research.
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Przystupski D, Górska A, Rozborska P, Bartosik W, Michel O, Rossowska J, Szewczyk A, Drąg-Zalesińska M, Kasperkiewicz P, Górski J, Kulbacka J. The Cytoprotective Role of Antioxidants in Mammalian Cells Under Rapidly Varying UV Conditions During Stratospheric Balloon Campaign. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:851. [PMID: 31427965 PMCID: PMC6687761 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The current age of dynamic development of the space industry brings the mankind closer to routine manned space flights and space tourism. This progress leads to a demand for intensive astrobiological research aimed at improving strategies of the pharmacological protection of the human cells against extreme conditions. Although routine research in space remains out of our reach, it is worth noticing that the unique severe environment of the Earth's stratosphere has been found to mimic subcosmic conditions, giving rise to the opportunity to use the stratospheric surface as a research model for the astrobiological studies. Our study included launching into the stratosphere a balloon containing mammalian normal and cancer cells treated with various compounds to examine whether these substances are capable of protecting the cells against stress caused by rapidly varying temperature, pressure, and radiation, especially UV. Owing to oxidative stress caused by irradiation and temperature shock, we used natural compounds which display antioxidant properties, namely, catechin isolated from green tea, honokiol derived from magnolia, curcumin from turmeric, and cinnamon extract. "After-flight" laboratory tests have shown the most active antioxidants as potential agents which can minimize harmful impact of extreme conditions on human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Agata Górska
- Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Experimental Biology, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Paulina Rozborska
- Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
| | | | - Olga Michel
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Rossowska
- Ludwik Hirszfeld Institute of Immunology and Experimental Therapy, Polish Academy of Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Anna Szewczyk
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland
- Department of Animal Developmental Biology, Institute of Experimental Biology, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
| | | | - Paulina Kasperkiewicz
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Jędrzej Górski
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Julita Kulbacka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Wroclaw Medical University, Wroclaw, Poland
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34
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Abundance and survival of microbial aerosols in the troposphere and stratosphere. ISME JOURNAL 2019; 13:2789-2799. [PMID: 31316133 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-019-0474-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Revised: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Bioaerosol transport in the atmosphere disperses microbial species between continents, affects human and plant health, and may influence hydrologic cycling. However, there have been few quantitative observations of bioaerosols at altitudes more than a few kilometers above the surface. Lack of data on bioaerosol distributions in the atmosphere has impeded efforts to assess the aerial dissemination of microbes and their vertical extent in the biosphere. In this study, a helium balloon payload system was used to sample microbial cells and dust particles in air masses as high as 38 km above sea level over three locations in the southwestern United States. The cell concentrations at altitudes between 3 and 29 km were highly similar (2-5 × 105 cells m-3) and approximately threefold lower than those observed in the convective boundary layer (CBL; 1 × 106 cells m-3), decreasing to 8 × 104 cells m-3 at 35-38 km. The detection of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and recovery of bacteria possessing extreme tolerance to desiccation and shortwave ultraviolet radiation confirmed that certain microorganisms have the capacity to persist at lower altitudes of the stratosphere. Our data and related calculations provide constraints on the upper altitudinal boundary for microbial habitability in the biosphere.
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35
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Schuerger AC, Moores JE, Smith DJ, Reitz G. A Lunar Microbial Survival Model for Predicting the Forward Contamination of the Moon. ASTROBIOLOGY 2019; 19:730-756. [PMID: 30810338 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2018.1952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The surface conditions on the Moon are extremely harsh with high doses of ultraviolet (UV) irradiation (26.8 W · m-2 UVC/UVB), wide temperature extremes (-171°C to 140°C), low pressure (10-10 Pa), and high levels of ionizing radiation. External spacecraft surfaces on the Moon are generally >100°C during daylight hours and can reach as high as 140°C at local noon. A Lunar Microbial Survival (LMS) model was developed that estimated (1) the total viable bioburden of all spacecraft landed on the Moon as ∼4.57 × 1010 microbial cells/spores at contact, (2) the inactivation kinetics of Bacillus subtilis spores to vacuum as approaching -2 logs per 2107 days, (3) the inactivation of spores on external surfaces due to concomitant low-pressure and high-temperature conditions as -6 logs per 8 h for local noon conditions, and (4) the ionizing radiation by solar wind particles as approaching -3 logs per lunation on external surfaces only. When the biocidal factors of solar UV, vacuum, high-temperature, and ionizing radiation were combined into an integrated LMS model, a -231 log reduction in viable bioburden was predicted for external spacecraft surfaces per lunation at the equator. Results indicate that external surfaces of landed or crashed spacecraft are unlikely to harbor viable spores after only one lunation, that shallow internal surfaces will be sterilized due to the interactive effects of vacuum and thermal cycling from solar irradiation, and that deep internal surfaces would be affected only by vacuum with a degradation rate of -0.02 logs per lunation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Schuerger
- 1 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - John E Moores
- 2 Centre for Research in Earth and Space Science (CRESS), York University, Toronto, ON Canada
| | - David J Smith
- 3 Space Biosciences Division, NASA, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California
| | - Günther Reitz
- 4 Department of Radiation Dosimetry, Nuclear Physics Institute of the CAS, Praha, Czech Republic
- 5 Radiation Biology Division, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
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36
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Cramm MA, Chakraborty A, Li C, Ruff SE, Jørgensen BB, Hubert CRJ. Freezing Tolerance of Thermophilic Bacterial Endospores in Marine Sediments. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:945. [PMID: 31130935 PMCID: PMC6509201 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Dormant endospores of anaerobic, thermophilic bacteria found in cold marine sediments offer a useful model for studying microbial biogeography, dispersal, and survival. The dormant endospore phenotype confers resistance to unfavorable environmental conditions, allowing dispersal to be isolated and studied independently of other factors such as environmental selection. To study the resilience of thermospores to conditions relevant for survival in extreme cold conditions, their viability following different freezing treatments was tested. Marine sediment was frozen at either −80°C or −20°C for 10 days prior to pasteurization and incubation at +50°C for 21 days to assess thermospore viability. Sulfate reduction commenced at +50°C following both freezing pretreatments indicating persistence of thermophilic endospores of sulfate-reducing bacteria. The onset of sulfate reduction at +50°C was delayed in −80°C pretreated microcosms, which exhibited more variability between triplicates, compared to −20°C pretreated microcosms and parallel controls that were not frozen in advance. Microbial communities were evaluated by 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing, revealing an increase in the relative sequence abundance of thermophilic endospore-forming Firmicutes in all microcosms. Different freezing pretreatments (−80°C and −20°C) did not appreciably influence the shift in overall bacterial community composition that occurred during the +50°C incubations. Communities that had been frozen prior to +50°C incubation showed an increase in the relative sequence abundance of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) affiliated with the class Bacilli, relative to unfrozen controls. These results show that freezing impacts but does not obliterate thermospore populations and their ability to germinate and grow under appropriate conditions. Indeed the majority of the thermospore OTUs detected in this study (21 of 22) could be observed following one or both freezing treatments. These results are important for assessing thermospore viability in frozen samples and following cold exposure such as the very low temperatures that would be encountered during panspermia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret A Cramm
- Geomicrobiology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Anirban Chakraborty
- Geomicrobiology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Carmen Li
- Geomicrobiology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - S Emil Ruff
- Energy Bioengineering Group, Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Bo Barker Jørgensen
- Center for Geomicrobiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Casey R J Hubert
- Geomicrobiology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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37
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Blachowicz A, Chiang AJ, Elsaesser A, Kalkum M, Ehrenfreund P, Stajich JE, Torok T, Wang CCC, Venkateswaran K. Proteomic and Metabolomic Characteristics of Extremophilic Fungi Under Simulated Mars Conditions. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1013. [PMID: 31156574 PMCID: PMC6529585 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Filamentous fungi have been associated with extreme habitats, including nuclear power plant accident sites and the International Space Station (ISS). Due to their immense adaptation and phenotypic plasticity capacities, fungi may thrive in what seems like uninhabitable niches. This study is the first report of fungal survival after exposure of monolayers of conidia to simulated Mars conditions (SMC). Conidia of several Chernobyl nuclear accident-associated and ISS-isolated strains were tested for UV-C and SMC sensitivity, which resulted in strain-dependent survival. Strains surviving exposure to SMC for 30 min, ISSFT-021-30 and IMV 00236-30, were further characterized for proteomic, and metabolomic changes. Differential expression of proteins involved in ribosome biogenesis, translation, and carbohydrate metabolic processes was observed. No significant metabolome alterations were revealed. Lastly, ISSFT-021-30 conidia re-exposed to UV-C exhibited enhanced UV-C resistance when compared to the conidia of unexposed ISSFT-021.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Blachowicz
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Biotechnology and Planetary Protection Group, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, United States
| | - Abby J Chiang
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Therapy, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | | | - Markus Kalkum
- Department of Molecular Imaging and Therapy, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Duarte, CA, United States
| | | | - Jason E Stajich
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Tamas Torok
- Department of Ecology, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Clay C C Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Kasthuri Venkateswaran
- Biotechnology and Planetary Protection Group, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, United States
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38
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Merino N, Aronson HS, Bojanova DP, Feyhl-Buska J, Wong ML, Zhang S, Giovannelli D. Living at the Extremes: Extremophiles and the Limits of Life in a Planetary Context. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:780. [PMID: 31037068 PMCID: PMC6476344 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Prokaryotic life has dominated most of the evolutionary history of our planet, evolving to occupy virtually all available environmental niches. Extremophiles, especially those thriving under multiple extremes, represent a key area of research for multiple disciplines, spanning from the study of adaptations to harsh conditions, to the biogeochemical cycling of elements. Extremophile research also has implications for origin of life studies and the search for life on other planetary and celestial bodies. In this article, we will review the current state of knowledge for the biospace in which life operates on Earth and will discuss it in a planetary context, highlighting knowledge gaps and areas of opportunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Merino
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States.,Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan.,Biosciences and Biotechnology Division, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Lab, Livermore, CA, United States
| | - Heidi S Aronson
- Department of Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Diana P Bojanova
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Jayme Feyhl-Buska
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Michael L Wong
- Department of Astronomy - Astrobiology Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States.,NASA Astrobiology Institute's Virtual Planetary Laboratory, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Shu Zhang
- Section of Infection and Immunity, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry of USC, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Donato Giovannelli
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Biology, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy.,Department of Marine and Coastal Science, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, United States.,Institute for Biological Resources and Marine Biotechnology, National Research Council of Italy, Ancona, Italy
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39
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Bak EN, Larsen MG, Jensen SK, Nørnberg P, Moeller R, Finster K. Wind-Driven Saltation: An Overlooked Challenge for Life on Mars. ASTROBIOLOGY 2019; 19:497-505. [PMID: 30407074 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2018.1856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies have demonstrated that the martian surface environment is hostile to life because of its rough radiation climate and the reactive chemistry of the regolith. Physical processes such as erosion and transport of mineral particles by wind-driven saltation have hitherto not been considered as a life hazard. We report a series of experiments where bacterial endospores (spores of Bacillus subtilis) were exposed to a simulated saltating martian environment. We observed that 50% of the spores that are known to be highly resistant to radiation and oxidizing chemicals were destroyed by saltation-mediated abrasion within one minute. Scanning electron micrographs show that the spores were not only damaged by abrasion but were eradicated during the saltation process. We suggest that abrasion mediated by wind-driven saltation should be included as a factor that defines the habitability of the martian surface environment. The process may efficiently protect the martian surface from forward contamination with terrestrial microbial life-forms. Abrasion mediated by wind-driven saltation should also be considered as a major challenge to indigenous martian surface life if it exists/existed.
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Affiliation(s)
- E N Bak
- 1 Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
| | - M G Larsen
- 1 Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
| | - S K Jensen
- 2 Department of Chemistry, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
| | - P Nørnberg
- 1 Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
| | - R Moeller
- 3 Institute of Aerospace Medicine , Radiation Biology Department, Space Microbiology Research Group, German Aerospace Center (DLR e.V.), Cologne (Köln), Germany
| | - K Finster
- 1 Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
- 4 Stellar Astrophysics Centre, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Aarhus University , Aarhus, Denmark
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40
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Cortesão M, Fuchs FM, Commichau FM, Eichenberger P, Schuerger AC, Nicholson WL, Setlow P, Moeller R. Bacillus subtilis Spore Resistance to Simulated Mars Surface Conditions. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:333. [PMID: 30863384 PMCID: PMC6399134 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In a Mars exploration scenario, knowing if and how highly resistant Bacillus subtilis spores would survive on the Martian surface is crucial to design planetary protection measures and avoid false positives in life-detection experiments. Therefore, in this study a systematic screening was performed to determine whether B. subtilis spores could survive an average day on Mars. For that, spores from two comprehensive sets of isogenic B. subtilis mutant strains, defective in DNA protection or repair genes, were exposed to 24 h of simulated Martian atmospheric environment with or without 8 h of Martian UV radiation [M(+)UV and M(-)UV, respectively]. When exposed to M(+)UV, spore survival was dependent on: (1) core dehydration maintenance, (2) protection of DNA by α/β-type small acid soluble proteins (SASP), and (3) removal and repair of the major UV photoproduct (SP) in spore DNA. In turn, when exposed to M(-)UV, spore survival was mainly dependent on protection by the multilayered spore coat, and DNA double-strand breaks represent the main lesion accumulated. Bacillus subtilis spores were able to survive for at least a limited time in a simulated Martian environment, both with or without solar UV radiation. Moreover, M(-)UV-treated spores exhibited survival rates significantly higher than the M(+)UV-treated spores. This suggests that on a real Martian surface, radiation shielding of spores (e.g., by dust, rocks, or spacecraft surface irregularities) might significantly extend survival rates. Mutagenesis were strongly dependent on the functionality of all structural components with small acid-soluble spore proteins, coat layers and dipicolinic acid as key protectants and efficiency DNA damage removal by AP endonucleases (ExoA and Nfo), non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), mismatch repair (MMR) and error-prone translesion synthesis (TLS). Thus, future efforts should focus on: (1) determining the DNA damage in wild-type spores exposed to M(+/-)UV and (2) assessing spore survival and viability with shielding of spores via Mars regolith and other relevant materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Cortesão
- Space Microbiology Research Group, Radiation Biology Department, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Felix M Fuchs
- Space Microbiology Research Group, Radiation Biology Department, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
| | - Fabian M Commichau
- Department of General Microbiology, Institute for Microbiology and Genetics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Patrick Eichenberger
- Department of Biology, Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, New York University, New York, NY, United States
| | - Andrew C Schuerger
- Department of Plant Pathology, Space Life Sciences Laboratory, University of Florida, Merritt Island, FL, United States
| | - Wayne L Nicholson
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, Space Life Sciences Laboratory, University of Florida, Merritt Island, FL, United States
| | - Peter Setlow
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, United States
| | - Ralf Moeller
- Space Microbiology Research Group, Radiation Biology Department, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center, Cologne, Germany
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41
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Pulschen AA, de Araujo GG, de Carvalho ACSR, Cerini MF, Fonseca LDM, Galante D, Rodrigues F. Survival of Extremophilic Yeasts in the Stratospheric Environment during Balloon Flights and in Laboratory Simulations. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:e01942-18. [PMID: 30266724 PMCID: PMC6238051 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01942-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The high-altitude atmosphere is a harsh environment with extremely low temperatures, low pressure, and high UV irradiation. For this reason, it has been proposed as an analogue for Mars, presenting deleterious factors similar to those on the surface of that planet. We evaluated the survival of extremophilic UV-resistant yeasts isolated from a high-elevation area in the Atacama Desert under stratospheric conditions. As biological controls, intrinsically resistant Bacillus subtilis spores were used. Experiments were performed in two independent stratospheric balloon flights and with an environmental simulation chamber. The three following different conditions were evaluated: (i) desiccation, (ii) desiccation plus exposure to stratospheric low pressure and temperature, and (3) desiccation plus exposure to the full stratospheric environment (UV, low pressure, and temperature). Two strains, Naganishia (Cryptococcus) friedmannii 16LV2 and Exophiala sp. strain 15LV1, survived full exposures to the stratosphere in larger numbers than did B. subtilis spores. Holtermanniella watticus (also known as Holtermanniella wattica) 16LV1, however, suffered a substantial loss in viability upon desiccation and did not survive the stratospheric UV exposure. The remarkable resilience of N. friedmannii and Exophiala sp. 15LV1 under the extreme Mars-like conditions of the stratosphere confirms its potential as a eukaryotic model for astrobiology. Additionally, our results with N. friedmannii strengthen the recent hypothesis that yeasts belonging to the Naganishia genus are fit for aerial dispersion, which might account for the observed abundance of this species in high-elevation soils.IMPORTANCE Studies of eukaryotic microorganisms under conditions of astrobiological relevance, as well as the aerial dispersion potential of extremophilic yeasts, are still lacking in the literature compared to works with bacteria. Using stratospheric balloon flights and a simulation chamber, we demonstrate that yeasts isolated from an extreme environment are capable of surviving all stressors found in the stratosphere, including intense UV irradiation, scoring an even higher survival than B. subtilis spores. Notably, the yeast N. friedmannii, which displayed one of the highest tolerances to the stratospheric environment in the experiments, was recently proposed to be adapted to airborne transportation, although such a hypothesis had not yet been tested. Our results strengthen such an assumption and can help explain the observed distribution and ecology of this particular yeast species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Maria Fernanda Cerini
- Graduate Program in Biomolecular Physics, São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory, Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Douglas Galante
- Graduate Program in Biomolecular Physics, São Carlos Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory, Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fabio Rodrigues
- Department of Fundamental Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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42
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Fornaro T, Steele A, Brucato JR. Catalytic/Protective Properties of Martian Minerals and Implications for Possible Origin of Life on Mars. Life (Basel) 2018; 8:life8040056. [PMID: 30400661 PMCID: PMC6315534 DOI: 10.3390/life8040056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 10/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Minerals might have played critical roles for the origin and evolution of possible life forms on Mars. The study of the interactions between the "building blocks of life" and minerals relevant to Mars mineralogy under conditions mimicking the harsh Martian environment may provide key insight into possible prebiotic processes. Therefore, this contribution aims at reviewing the most important investigations carried out so far about the catalytic/protective properties of Martian minerals toward molecular biosignatures under Martian-like conditions. Overall, it turns out that the fate of molecular biosignatures on Mars depends on a delicate balance between multiple preservation and degradation mechanisms, often regulated by minerals, which may take place simultaneously. Such a complexity requires more efforts in simulating realistically the Martian environment in order to better inspect plausible prebiotic pathways and shed light on the nature of the organic compounds detected both in meteorites and on the surface of Mars through in situ analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Fornaro
- Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution for Science, 5251 Broad Branch Rd. NW, Washington, DC 20015, USA.
| | - Andrew Steele
- Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution for Science, 5251 Broad Branch Rd. NW, Washington, DC 20015, USA.
| | - John Robert Brucato
- INAF-Astrophysical Observatory of Arcetri, L.go E. Fermi 5, 50125 Firenze, Italy.
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Metabolic fingerprints of Serratia liquefaciens under simulated Martian conditions using Biolog GN2 microarrays. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15721. [PMID: 30356072 PMCID: PMC6200771 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33856-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 10/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms growing at atmospheric pressures of 0.7 kPa may have a significant impact on the search for life on Mars. Data on their nutrient requirements in a simulated Martian environment are required to ascertain both the potential risk of forward contamination and the potential of past or present habitability of Mars. Serratia liquefaciens can grow at concomitant conditions of low pressure, low temperature, and anoxic atmosphere. Changes in the metabolic fingerprint of S. liquefaciens grown under varying physical conditions including diverse atmospheric pressures (0.7 kPa to 101.3 kPa), temperatures (30 °C or 0 °C), and atmospheric gas compositions (Earth or CO2) were investigated using Biolog GN2 assays. Distinct patterns for each condition were observed. Above 10 kPa S. liquefaciens performed similar to Earth-normal pressure conditions (101.3 kPa) whereas below 10 kPa shifts in metabolic patterns were observed. The differences indicated a physiological alteration in which S. liquefaciens lost its ability to metabolize the majority of the provided carbon sources at 0.7 kPa with a significant decrease in the oxidation of amino acids. By measuring the physiological responses to different carbon sources we were able to identify nutritional constraints that support cellular replication under simulated shallow Mars subsurface conditions.
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Bendia AG, Araujo GG, Pulschen AA, Contro B, Duarte RTD, Rodrigues F, Galante D, Pellizari VH. Surviving in hot and cold: psychrophiles and thermophiles from Deception Island volcano, Antarctica. Extremophiles 2018; 22:917-929. [PMID: 30109444 DOI: 10.1007/s00792-018-1048-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Polar volcanoes harbor unique conditions of extreme temperature gradients capable of selecting different types of extremophiles. Deception Island is a marine stratovolcano located at Maritime Antarctica that is notable for its pronounced temperature gradients over very short distances, reaching values up to 100 °C in the fumaroles, and subzero temperatures next to the glaciers. Due to these characteristics, Deception can be considered an interesting analogue of extraterrestrial environments. Our main goal in this study was to isolate thermophilic and psychrophilic bacteria from sediments associated with fumaroles and glaciers from two geothermal sites in Deception Island, comprising temperatures between 0 and 98 °C, and to evaluate their survivability to desiccation and UV-C radiation. Our results revealed that culturable thermophiles and psychrophiles were recovered among the extreme temperature gradient in Deception volcano, which indicates that these extremophiles remain alive even when the conditions do not comprise their growth range. The viability of culturable psychrophiles in hyperthermophilic environments is still poorly understood and our work showed the importance of future studies about their survival strategies in high temperatures. Finally, the spore-forming thermophilic isolates which we found have displayed good survival to desiccation and UV-C irradiation, which suggests their potential to be further explored in astrobiological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda G Bendia
- Departamento de Oceanografia Biológica, Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo, Praça do Oceanográfico 191, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil.
| | - Gabriel G Araujo
- Interunities Graduate Program in Biotechnology, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - André A Pulschen
- Institute of Chemistry, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Bruna Contro
- Undergraduate Program in Biology, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Julio de Mesquisa Filho", São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rubens T D Duarte
- Departamento de Oceanografia Biológica, Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo, Praça do Oceanográfico 191, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Fábio Rodrigues
- Institute of Chemistry, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Douglas Galante
- Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory, Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Vivian H Pellizari
- Departamento de Oceanografia Biológica, Instituto Oceanográfico, Universidade de São Paulo, Praça do Oceanográfico 191, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil
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Tirumalai MR, Stepanov VG, Wünsche A, Montazari S, Gonzalez RO, Venkateswaran K, Fox GE. Bacillus safensis FO-36b and Bacillus pumilus SAFR-032: a whole genome comparison of two spacecraft assembly facility isolates. BMC Microbiol 2018; 18:57. [PMID: 29884123 PMCID: PMC5994023 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-018-1191-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bacillus strains producing highly resistant spores have been isolated from cleanrooms and space craft assembly facilities. Organisms that can survive such conditions merit planetary protection concern and if that resistance can be transferred to other organisms, a health concern too. To further efforts to understand these resistances, the complete genome of Bacillus safensis strain FO-36b, which produces spores resistant to peroxide and radiation was determined. The genome was compared to the complete genome of B. pumilus SAFR-032, and the draft genomes of B. safensis JPL-MERTA-8-2 and the type strain B. pumilus ATCC7061T. Additional comparisons were made to 61 draft genomes that have been mostly identified as strains of B. pumilus or B. safensis. Results The FO-36b gene order is essentially the same as that in SAFR-032 and other B. pumilus strains. The annotated genome has 3850 open reading frames and 40 noncoding RNAs and riboswitches. Of these, 307 are not shared by SAFR-032, and 65 are also not shared by MERTA and ATCC7061T. The FO-36b genome has ten unique open reading frames and two phage-like regions, homologous to the Bacillus bacteriophage SPP1 and Brevibacillus phage Jimmer1. Differing remnants of the Jimmer1 phage are found in essentially all B. safensis / B. pumilus strains. Seven unique genes are part of these phage elements. Whole Genome Phylogenetic Analysis of the B. pumilus, B. safensis and other Firmicutes genomes, separate them into three distinct clusters. Two clusters are subgroups of B. pumilus while one houses all the B. safensis strains. The Genome-genome distance analysis and a phylogenetic analysis of gyrA sequences corroborated these results. Conclusions It is not immediately obvious that the presence or absence of any specific gene or combination of genes is responsible for the variations in resistance seen. It is quite possible that distinctions in gene regulation can alter the expression levels of key proteins thereby changing the organism’s resistance properties without gain or loss of a particular gene. What is clear is that phage elements contribute significantly to genome variability. Multiple genome comparison indicates that many strains named as B. pumilus likely belong to the B. safensis group. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-018-1191-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhan R Tirumalai
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77204-5001, USA
| | - Victor G Stepanov
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77204-5001, USA
| | - Andrea Wünsche
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77204-5001, USA
| | - Saied Montazari
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77204-5001, USA
| | - Racquel O Gonzalez
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77204-5001, USA
| | - Kasturi Venkateswaran
- Biotechnology & Planetary Protection Group, NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratories, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91109, USA
| | - George E Fox
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX, 77204-5001, USA.
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Nicholson WL, Schuerger AC, Douki T. The Photochemistry of Unprotected DNA and DNA inside Bacillus subtilis Spores Exposed to Simulated Martian Surface Conditions of Atmospheric Composition, Temperature, Pressure, and Solar Radiation. ASTROBIOLOGY 2018; 18:393-402. [PMID: 29589975 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2017.1721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
DNA is considered a potential biomarker for life-detection experiments destined for Mars. Experiments were conducted to examine the photochemistry of bacterial DNA, either unprotected or within Bacillus subtilis spores, in response to exposure to simulated martian surface conditions consisting of the following: temperature (-10°C), pressure (0.7 kPa), atmospheric composition [CO2 (95.54%), N2 (2.7%), Ar (1.6%), O2 (0.13%), and H2O (0.03%)], and UV-visible-near IR solar radiation spectrum (200-1100 nm) calibrated to 4 W/m2 of UVC (200-280 nm). While the majority (99.9%) of viable spores deposited in multiple layers on spacecraft-qualified aluminum coupons were inactivated within 5 min, a detectable fraction survived for up to the equivalent of ∼115 martian sols. Spore photoproduct (SP) was the major lesion detected in spore DNA, with minor amounts of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD), in the order TT CPD > TC CPD >> CT CPD. In addition, the (6-4)TC, but not the (6-4)TT, photoproduct was detected in spore DNA. When unprotected DNA was exposed to simulated martian conditions, all photoproducts were detected. Surprisingly, the (6-4)TC photoproduct was the major photoproduct, followed by SP ∼ TT CPD > TC CPD > (6-4)TT > CT CPD > CC CPD. Differences in the photochemistry of unprotected DNA and spore DNA in response to simulated martian surface conditions versus laboratory conditions are reviewed and discussed. The results have implications for the planning of future life-detection experiments that use DNA as the target, and for the long-term persistence on Mars of forward contaminants or their DNA. Key Words: Bacillus subtilis-DNA-Mars-Photochemistry-Spore-Ultraviolet. Astrobiology 18, 393-402.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wayne L Nicholson
- 1 Department of Microbiology and Cell Science, University of Florida , Merritt Island, Florida, USA
| | - Andrew C Schuerger
- 2 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida , Merritt Island, Florida, USA
| | - Thierry Douki
- 3 Univ. Grenoble Alpes , CEA, CNRS, INAC, SyMMES/CIBEST, Grenoble, France
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de la Torre Noetzel R, Miller AZ, de la Rosa JM, Pacelli C, Onofri S, García Sancho L, Cubero B, Lorek A, Wolter D, de Vera JP. Cellular Responses of the Lichen Circinaria gyrosa in Mars-Like Conditions. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:308. [PMID: 29556220 PMCID: PMC5845166 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Lichens are extremely resistant organisms that colonize harsh climatic areas, some of them defined as "Mars-analog sites." There still remain many unsolved questions as to how lichens survive under such extreme conditions. Several studies have been performed to test the resistance of various lichen species under space and in simulated Mars-like conditions. The results led to the proposal that Circinaria gyrosa (Lecanoromycetes, Ascomycota) is one of the most durable astrobiological model lichens. However, although C. gyrosa has been exposed to Mars-like environmental conditions while in a latent state, it has not been exposed in its physiologically active mode. We hypothesize that the astrobiological test system "Circinaria gyrosa," could be able to be physiologically active and to survive under Mars-like conditions in a simulation chamber, based on previous studies performed at dessicated-dormant stage under simulated Mars-like conditions, that showed a complete recover of the PSII activity (Sánchez et al., 2012). Epifluorescence and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) showed that living algal cells were more abundant in samples exposed to niche conditions, which simulated the conditions in micro-fissures and micro-caves close to the surface that have limited scattered or time-dependent light exposure, than in samples exposed to full UV radiation. The medulla was not structurally affected, suggesting that the niche exposure conditions did not disturb the lichen thalli structure and morphology as revealed by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). In addition, changes in the lichen thalli chemical composition were determined by analytical pyrolysis. The chromatograms resulting from analytical pyrolysis at 500°C revealed that lichen samples exposed to niche conditions and full UV radiation consisted primarily of glycosidic compounds, lipids, and sterols, which are typical constituents of the cell walls. However, specific differences could be detected and used as markers of the UV-induced damage to the lichen membranes. Based on its viability responses after rehydration, our study shows that the test lichen survived the 30-day incubation in the Mars chamber particularly under niche conditions. However, the photobiont was not able to photosynthesize under the Mars-like conditions, which indicates that the surface of Mars is not a habitable place for C. gyrosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa de la Torre Noetzel
- Departamento de Observación de la Tierra, Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Z Miller
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Sevilla, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Sevilla, Spain
| | - José M de la Rosa
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Sevilla, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Claudia Pacelli
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Silvano Onofri
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | | | - Beatriz Cubero
- Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiología de Sevilla, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Sevilla, Spain
| | - Andreas Lorek
- German Aerospace Center (DLR) Berlin, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - David Wolter
- German Aerospace Center (DLR) Berlin, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jean P de Vera
- German Aerospace Center (DLR) Berlin, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, Germany
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48
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Olsson-Francis K, Ramkissoon NK, Price AB, Slade DJ, Macey MC, Pearson VK. The Study of Microbial Survival in Extraterrestrial Environments Using Low Earth Orbit and Ground-Based Experiments. J Microbiol Methods 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mim.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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49
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DasSarma P, DasSarma S. Survival of microbes in Earth's stratosphere. Curr Opin Microbiol 2017; 43:24-30. [PMID: 29156444 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 11/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The remarkable survival of microorganisms high above the surface of the Earth is of increasing interest. At stratospheric levels, multiple stressors including ultraviolet and ionizing radiation, low temperatures, hypobaric conditions, extreme desiccation, and nutrient scarcity are all significant challenges. Our understanding of which microorganisms are capable of tolerating such stressful conditions has been addressed by stratospheric sample collection and survival assays, through launching and recovery, and exposure to simulated conditions in the laboratory. Here, we review stratospheric microbiology studies providing our current perspective on microbial life at extremely high altitudes and discuss implications for health and agriculture, climate change, planetary protection, and astrobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya DasSarma
- University of Maryland School of Medicine and Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, 701 East Pratt Street, Baltimore, MD 21202, USA
| | - Shiladitya DasSarma
- University of Maryland School of Medicine and Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology, 701 East Pratt Street, Baltimore, MD 21202, USA.
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50
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Bak EN, Larsen MG, Moeller R, Nissen SB, Jensen LR, Nørnberg P, Jensen SJK, Finster K. Silicates Eroded under Simulated Martian Conditions Effectively Kill Bacteria-A Challenge for Life on Mars. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1709. [PMID: 28955310 PMCID: PMC5601068 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The habitability of Mars is determined by the physical and chemical environment. The effect of low water availability, temperature, low atmospheric pressure and strong UV radiation has been extensively studied in relation to the survival of microorganisms. In addition to these stress factors, it was recently found that silicates exposed to simulated saltation in a Mars-like atmosphere can lead to a production of reactive oxygen species. Here, we have investigated the stress effect induced by quartz and basalt abraded in Mars-like atmospheres by examining the survivability of the three microbial model organisms Pseudomonas putida, Bacillus subtilis, and Deinococcus radiodurans upon exposure to the abraded silicates. We found that abraded basalt that had not been in contact with oxygen after abrasion killed more than 99% of the vegetative cells while endospores were largely unaffected. Exposure of the basalt samples to oxygen after abrasion led to a significant reduction in the stress effect. Abraded quartz was generally less toxic than abraded basalt. We suggest that the stress effect of abraded silicates may be caused by a production of reactive oxygen species and enhanced by transition metal ions in the basalt leading to hydroxyl radicals through Fenton-like reactions. The low survivability of the usually highly resistant D. radiodurans indicates that the effect of abraded silicates, as is ubiquitous on the Martian surface, would limit the habitability of Mars as well as the risk of forward contamination. Furthermore, the reactivity of abraded silicates could have implications for future manned missions, although the lower effect of abraded silicates exposed to oxygen suggests that the effects would be reduced in human habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebbe N Bak
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus UniversityAarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Ralf Moeller
- Space Microbiology Research Group, Institute of Aerospace Medicine, German Aerospace Center (DLR)Cologne, Germany
| | - Silas B Nissen
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus UniversityAarhus, Denmark
| | - Lasse R Jensen
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus UniversityAarhus, Denmark
| | - Per Nørnberg
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus UniversityAarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Kai Finster
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus UniversityAarhus, Denmark.,Stellar Astrophysics Center, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Aarhus UniversityAarhus, Denmark
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