Synthesis and characterization of metal derivatives of dihydrolipoic acid and dihydrolipoamide

Arsenic Toxicity: Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Agents

High arsenic (As) levels in food and drinking water, or under some occupational conditions, can precipitate chronic toxicity and in some cases cancer. Millions of people are exposed to unacceptable amounts of As through drinking water and food. Highly exposed individuals may develop acute, subacute, or chronic signs of poisoning, characterized by skin lesions, cardiovascular symptoms, and in some cases, multi-organ failure. Inorganic arsenite(III) and organic arsenicals with the general formula R-As²⁺ are bound tightly to thiol groups, particularly to vicinal dithiols such as dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA), which together with some seleno-enzymes constitute vulnerable targets for the toxic action of As. In addition, R-As²⁺-compounds have even higher affinity to selenol groups, e.g., in thioredoxin reductase that also possesses a thiol group vicinal to the selenol. Inhibition of this and other ROS scavenging seleno-enzymes explain the oxidative stress associated with arsenic poisoning. The development of chelating agents, such as the dithiols BAL (dimercaptopropanol), DMPS (dimercapto-propanesulfonate) and DMSA (dimercaptosuccinic acid), took advantage of the fact that As had high affinity towards vicinal dithiols. Primary prevention by reducing exposure of the millions of people exposed to unacceptable As levels should be the prioritized strategy. However, in acute and subacute and even some cases with chronic As poisonings chelation treatment with therapeutic dithiols, in particular DMPS appears promising as regards alleviation of symptoms. In acute cases, initial treatment with BAL combined with DMPS should be considered.

A Review on Coordination Properties of Thiol-Containing Chelating Agents Towards Mercury, Cadmium, and Lead

The present article reviews the clinical use of thiol-based metal chelators in intoxications and overexposure with mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb). Currently, very few commercially available pharmaceuticals can successfully reduce or prevent the toxicity of these metals. The metal chelator meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) is considerably less toxic than the classical agent British anti-Lewisite (BAL, 2,3-dimercaptopropanol) and is the recommended agent in poisonings with Pb and organic Hg. Its toxicity is also lower than that of DMPS (dimercaptopropane sulfonate), although DMPS is the recommended agent in acute poisonings with Hg salts. It is suggested that intracellular Cd deposits and cerebral deposits of inorganic Hg, to some extent, can be mobilized by a combination of antidotes, but clinical experience with such combinations are lacking. Alpha-lipoic acid (α-LA) has been suggested for toxic metal detoxification but is not considered a drug of choice in clinical practice. The molecular mechanisms and chemical equilibria of complex formation of the chelators with the metal ions Hg2+, Cd2+, and Pb2+ are reviewed since insight into these reactions can provide a basis for further development of therapeutics.

Fuel from water: the photochemical generation of hydrogen from water

Hydrogen has been labeled the fuel of the future since it contains no carbon, has the highest specific enthalpy of combustion of any chemical fuel, yields only water upon complete oxidation, and is not limited by Carnot considerations in the amount of work obtained when used in a fuel cell. To be used on the scale needed for sustainable growth on a global scale, hydrogen must be produced by the light-driven splitting of water into its elements, as opposed to reforming of methane, as is currently done. The photochemical generation of H2, which is the reductive side of the water splitting reaction, is the focus of this Account, particularly with regard to work done in the senior author's laboratory over the last 5 years. Despite seminal work done more than 30 years ago and the extensive research conducted since then on all aspects of the process, no viable system has been developed for the efficient and robust photogeneration of H2 from water using only earth abundant elements. For the photogeneration of H2 from water, a system must contain a light absorber, a catalyst, and a source of electrons. In this Account, the discovery and study of new Co and Ni catalysts are described that suggest H2 forms via a heterocoupling mechanism from a metal-hydride and a ligand-bound proton. Several complexes with redox active dithiolene ligands are newly recognized to be effective in promoting the reaction. A major new development in the work described is the use of water-soluble CdSe quantum dots (QDs) as light absorbers for H2 generation in water. Both activity and robustness of the most successful systems are impressive with turnover numbers (TONs) approaching 10(6), activity maintained over 15 days, and a quantum yield for H2 of 36% with 520 nm light. The water solubilizing capping agent for the first system examined was dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA) anion, and the catalyst was determined to be a DHLA complex of Ni(II) formed in situ. Dissociation of DHLA from the QD surface proved problematic in assessing other catalysts and stimulated the synthesis of tridentate trithiolate (S3) capping agents that are inert to dissociation. In this way, CdSe QD's having these S3 capping agents were used in systems for the photogeneration of H2 that allowed meaningful comparison of the relative activity of different catalysts for the light-driven production of H2 from water. This new chemistry also points the way to the development of new photocathodes based on S3-capped QDs for removal of the chemical sacrificial electron donor and its replacement electrochemically in photoelectrosynthetic cells.