A simple, three-step procedure for the large scale purification of DNA ligase from a hybrid lambda lysogen constructed in vitro

Ligation and Ligases

DNA ligases are used chiefly to create novel combinations of nucleic acid molecules and to attach them to vectors before molecular cloning. They are either of bacterial origin or bacteriophage encoded and have different properties, as discussed here.

Use of adenylate kinase as a solubility tag for high level expression of T4 DNA ligase in Escherichia coli

The discovery of T4 DNA ligase in 1960s was pivotal in the spread of molecular biotechnology. The enzyme has become ubiquitous for recombinant DNA routinely practiced in biomedical research around the globe. Great efforts have been made to express and purify T4 DNA ligase to meet the world demand, yet over-expression of soluble T4 DNA ligase in E. coli has been difficult. Here we explore the use of adenylate kinase to enhance T4 DNA ligase expression and its downstream purification. E.coli adenylate kinase, which can be expressed in active form at high level, was fused to the N-terminus of T4 DNA ligase. The resulting His-tagged AK-T4 DNA ligase fusion protein was greatly over-expressed in E. coli, and readily purified to near homogeneity via two purification steps consisting of Blue Sepharose and Ni-NTA chromatography. The purified AK-T4 DNA ligase not only is fully active for DNA ligation, but also can use ADP in addition to ATP as energy source since adenylate kinase converts ADP to ATP and AMP. Thus adenylate kinase may be used as a solubility tag to facilitate recombinant protein expression as well as their downstream purification.

DNA ligases

The DNA ligase enzyme family catalyzes the formation of a phosphodiester bond between juxtaposed 5'-phosphate and 3'-hydroxyl termini in duplex DNA. This activity can seal nicks in duplex DNA or join double-stranded DNA fragments having either blunt or cohesive ends. DNA ligases are central enzymes in molecular biology, nucleic acid research, and in next-generation sequencing applications. Reaction conditions and applications for T4 DNA ligase, E. coli DNA ligase, and thermostable DNA ligases are described in this unit. These enzymes differ in their cofactor requirements, substrate specificity, and thermal stability.

A high-throughput assay for the adenylation reaction of bacterial DNA ligase

DNA ligase catalyzes the closure of single-strand nicks in double-stranded DNA that arise during replication and recombination. Inhibition of bacterial ligase is expected to cause chromosome degradation and cell death, making it an attractive target for new antibacterials. The prototypical bacterial ligase couples the hydrolysis of NAD(+) to phosphodiester bond formation between an adjacent 3'OH and 5'-terminal phosphate of nicked duplex DNA. The first step is the reversible formation of a ligase-adenylate from the reaction between apoenzyme and NAD(+). Inhibitors that compete with NAD(+) are expected to be bacterial specific because eukaryotic DNA ligases use ATP and differ in the sequence composition of their adenylation domain. We report here a high-throughput assay that measures the adenylation reaction specifically by monitoring ligase-AMP formation via scintillation proximity technologies. Escherichia coli DNA ligase was biotinylated in vivo; after reaction with radiolabeled NAD(+), ligase-[(3)H]AMP could be captured onto the streptavidin-coated surface of the solid scintillant. The method was ideal for high-throughput screening because it required minimal manipulations and generated a robust signal with minimal scatter. Certain adenosine analogs were found to inhibit the adenylation assay and had similar potency of inhibition in a DNA ligation assay.

Adenylation-dependent conformation and unfolding pathways of the NAD+-dependent DNA ligase from the thermophile Thermus scotoductus

In the last few years, an increased attention has been focused on NAD(+)-dependent DNA ligases. This is mostly due to their potential use as antibiotic targets, because effective inhibition of these essential enzymes would result in the death of the bacterium. However, development of an efficient drug requires that the conformational modifications involved in the catalysis of NAD(+)-dependent DNA ligases are understood. From this perspective, we have investigated the conformational changes occurring in the thermophilic Thermus scotoductus NAD(+)-DNA ligase upon adenylation, as well as the effect of cofactor binding on protein resistance to thermal and chemical (guanidine hydrochloride) denaturation. Our results indicate that cofactor binding induces conformational rearrangement within the active site and promotes a compaction of the enzyme. These data support an induced "open-closure" process upon adenylation, leading to the formation of the catalytically active enzyme that is able to bind DNA. These conformational changes are likely to be associated with the protein function, preventing the formation of nonproductive complexes between deadenylated ligases and DNA. In addition, enzyme adenylation significantly increases resistance of the protein to thermal denaturation and GdmCl-induced unfolding, establishing a thermodynamic link between ligand binding and increased conformational stability. Finally, chemical unfolding of deadenylated and adenylated enzyme is accompanied by accumulation of at least two equilibrium intermediates, the molten globule and premolten globule states. Maximal populations of these intermediates are shifted toward higher GdmCl concentrations in the case of the adenylated ligase. These data provide further insights into the properties of partially folded intermediates.

Cofactor binding modulates the conformational stabilities and unfolding patterns of NAD(+)-dependent DNA ligases from Escherichia coli and Thermus scotoductus

DNA ligases are important enzymes required for cellular processes such as DNA replication, recombination, and repair. NAD(+)-dependent DNA ligases are essentially restricted to eubacteria, thus constituting an attractive target in the development of novel antibiotics. Although such a project might involve the systematic testing of a vast number of chemical compounds, it can essentially gain from the preliminary deciphering of the conformational stability and structural perturbations associated with the formation of the catalytically active adenylated enzyme. We have, therefore, investigated the adenylation-induced conformational changes in the mesophilic Escherichia coli and thermophilic Thermus scotoductus NAD(+)-DNA ligases, and the resistance of these enzymes to thermal and chemical (guanidine hydrochloride) denaturation. Our results clearly demonstrate that anchoring of the cofactor induces a conformational rearrangement within the active site of both mesophilic and thermophilic enzymes accompanied by their partial compaction. Furthermore, the adenylation of enzymes increases their resistance to thermal and chemical denaturation, establishing a thermodynamic link between cofactor binding and conformational stability enhancement. Finally, guanidine hydrochloride-induced unfolding of NAD(+)-dependent DNA ligases is shown to be a complex process that involves accumulation of at least two equilibrium intermediates, the molten globule and its precursor.

A DNA ligase from the psychrophile Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis gives insights into the adaptation of proteins to low temperatures

The cloning, overexpression and characterization of a cold-adapted DNA ligase from the Antarctic sea water bacterium Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis are described. Protein sequence analysis revealed that the cold-adapted Ph DNA ligase shows a significant level of sequence similarity to other NAD+-dependent DNA ligases and contains several previously described sequence motifs. Also, a decreased level of arginine and proline residues in Ph DNA ligase could be involved in the cold-adaptation strategy. Moreover, 3D modelling of the N-terminal domain of Ph DNA ligase clearly indicates that this domain is destabilized compared with its thermophilic homologue. The recombinant Ph DNA ligase was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. Mass spectroscopy experiments indicated that the purified enzyme is mainly in an adenylated form with a molecular mass of 74 593 Da. Ph DNA ligase shows similar overall catalytic properties to other NAD+-dependent DNA ligases but is a cold-adapted enzyme as its catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) at low and moderate temperatures is higher than that of its mesophilic counterpart E. coli DNA ligase. A kinetic comparison of three enzymes adapted to different temperatures (P. haloplanktis, E. coli and Thermus scotoductus DNA ligases) indicated that an increased kcat is the most important adaptive parameter for enzymatic activity at low temperatures, whereas a decreased Km for the nicked DNA substrate seems to allow T. scotoductus DNA ligase to work efficiently at high temperatures. Besides being useful for investigation of the adaptation of enzymes to extreme temperatures, P. haloplanktis DNA ligase, which is very efficient at low temperatures, offers a novel tool for biotechnology.

Cloning, overexpression and nucleotide sequence of a thermostable DNA ligase-encoding gene

Thermostable DNA ligase has been harnessed for the detection of single-base genetic diseases using the ligase chain reaction [Barany, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88 (1991) 189-193]. The Thermus thermophilus (Tth) DNA ligase-encoding gene (ligT) was cloned in Escherichia coli by genetic complementation of a ligts 7 defect in an E. coli host. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the gene revealed a single chain of 676 amino acid residues with 47% identity to the E. coli ligase. Under phoA promoter control, Tth ligase was overproduced to greater than 10% of E. coli cellular proteins. Adenylated and deadenylated forms of the purified enzyme were distinguished by apparent molecular weights of 81 kDa and 78 kDa, respectively, after separation via sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide-gel electrophoresis.

Nucleotide sequence of the lig gene and primary structure of DNA ligase of Escherichia coli

The DNA ligase of Escherichia coli catalyses the NAD-dependent formation of phosphodiester linkages between 5'-phosphoryl and 3'-hydroxyl groups in DNA. It is essential for DNA replication and repair of damaged DNA strands. We determined the nucleotide sequence of the lig gene of Escherichia coli coding for DNA ligase and flanking regions. The coding frame of the gene was confirmed by the amino acid composition and the amino- and carboxyl-terminal amino acid sequences of the purified ligase. The ligase consists of 671 amino acid residues with a molecular weight of 73,690.

Purification and properties of two DNA ligases from human placenta

Two DNA ligase activities have been separated, purified, and characterized. The resolution of the two enzymes from crude extracts was initially achieved through Polymin P precipitation. The ligation activity precipitating with the nucleic acids on treatment with Polymin P is designated as DNA ligase I, and an activity remaining in the supernatant fraction, as DNA ligase II. DNA ligase I and II are ATP and Mg2+-dependent enzymes with pH optima of 7.8 and 8.0 and isoelectric points of 6.9 and 7.6, respectively. The purified I and II DNA ligase activities have molecular weights of 83,000 and 89,000, respectively. Both activities are inhibited by dATP and inorganic pyrophosphate. However, in the presence of optimum rATP levels, dATP stimulates DNA ligase II activity, whereas DNA ligase I is inhibited under the same conditions. Both activities are DNA specific and ligation follows reaction steps similar to those described for the Escherichia coli DNA ligase.

Study of the expression of UVRA and SSB proteins in vivo in lambda hybrid phages containing the uvrA and ssbA genes of Escherichia coli

A 9.3-kb Eco RI fragment obtained by partial digestion of the plasmid pDR2000 and containing the uvrA and ssbA genes was subcloned in the insertion vector lambda gt4. Two hybrid bacteriophages carrying this fragment inserted in opposite orientations were isolated and used to lysogenize a uvrA and an ssbA mutant of Escherichia coli. Both phages conferred to these host bacteria the ultraviolet resistance of the wild-type parent indicating full complementation of the uvrA and of the ssbA defect. Two polypeptides corresponding to the molecular weights of the UVRA protein (115 000 dalton) and of the SSB protein (18 500 dalton) were synthesized and amplified after infection of a UV-irradiated lambda ind- lysogen with these 2 hybrid phages. The UVRA protein was not amplified after infection of a lex A3 host while SSB was still produced in large amount. These results establish that uvrA is repressed by lexA in vivo whereas ssbA is not.

A new procedure for the simultaneous large-scale purification of bacteriophage-T4-induced polynucleotide kinase, DNA ligase, RNA ligase and DNA polymerase

A procedure for simultaneous large-scale purification of the bacteriophage-T4-induced polynucleotide kinase, DNA ligase, RNA ligase and DNA polymerase has been developed. The method involves bacterial cell disruption by sonication, fractionation of cell extract with polymin P, salt elution from the polymin pellets, ammonium sulfate precipitation, and subsequent column chromatography purification of the enzymes. To enrich the enzyme content highly in the initial source non-permissive Escherichia coli B-23 cells infected with T4 amN82 phage were used. The procedure described is rapid, reproducible, high in yield, and able to handle preparations using from 1 g to 200 g cell paste. It can be easily scaled up. The method results in large amounts of the enzymes with very high specific activities, good stability essential lacking exonuclease and endonuclease contamination. The final enzyme preparations were efficiently used in DNA sequencing and in multiple experiments on construction of various recombinant DNAs for cloning and expression in vivo.