Characterization of the alpha-peptide released upon protease activation of pyruvate oxidase

Hydrogen peroxide-producing pyruvate oxidase from Lactobacillus delbrueckii is catalytically activated by phosphotidylethanolamine

Background

Pyruvate oxidase (Pox) is an important enzyme in bacterial metabolism for increasing ATP production and providing a fitness advantage via hydrogen peroxide production. However, few Pox enzymes have been characterized from bacterial species. The tetrameric non-hydrogen-peroxide producing Pox from E. coli is activated by phospholipids, which is important for its function in vivo.

Results

We characterized the hydrogenperoxide-producing Pox from L. delbrueckii strain STYM1 and showed it is specifically activated by phosphotidylethanolamine (16:0–18:1), but not by phosphotidylcholine or phosphotidylglycerol. This activation is a mixture of K- and V-type activation as both k_m and enzyme turnover are altered. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the L. delbrueckii Pox forms pentamers and either decamers or dimers of pentamers in solution, which is different from other characterized Pox enzymes. Lastly, we generated a C-terminal truncation mutant that was only weakly activated by phosphotidylethanolamine, which suggests the C-terminus is important for lipid activation.

Conclusions

To our knowledge this is the first known hydrogenperoxide-producing Pox enzyme that is activated by phospholipids. Our results suggest that there are substantial differences between Pox enzymes from different bacterial species, which could be important for their role in biological systems as well as in the development of Pox-based biosensors.

Staphylococcus aureus CidC Is a Pyruvate:Menaquinone Oxidoreductase

Recent studies have revealed an important role for the Staphylococcus aureus CidC enzyme in cell death during the stationary phase and in biofilm development and have contributed to our understanding of the metabolic processes that are important in the induction of bacterial programmed cell death (PCD). To gain more insight into the characteristics of this enzyme, we performed an in-depth biochemical and biophysical analysis of its catalytic properties. In vitro experiments show that this flavoprotein catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate to acetate and carbon dioxide. CidC efficiently reduces menadione, but not CoenzymeQ₀, suggesting a specific role in the S. aureus respiratory chain. CidC exists as a monomer under neutral-pH conditions but tends to aggregate and bind to artificial lipid membranes at acidic pH, resulting in enhanced enzymatic activity. Unlike its Escherichia coli counterpart, PoxB, CidC does not appear to be activated by other amphiphiles like Triton X-100 or octyl β-d-glucopyranoside. In addition, only reduced CidC is protected from proteolytic cleavage by chymotrypsin, and unlike its homologues in other bacteria, protease treatment does not increase CidC enzymatic activity. Finally, CidC exhibits maximal activity at pH 5.5-5.8 and negligible activity at pH 7-8. The results of this study are consistent with a model in which CidC functions as a pyruvate:menaquinone oxidoreductase whose activity is induced at the cellular membrane during cytoplasmic acidification, a process previously shown to be important for the induction of bacterial PCD.

Flavin redox switching of protein functions

Flavin cofactors impart remarkable catalytic diversity to enzymes, enabling them to participate in a broad array of biological processes. The properties of flavins also provide proteins with a versatile redox sensor that can be utilized for converting physiological signals such as cellular metabolism, light, and redox status into a unique functional output. The control of protein functions by the flavin redox state is important for transcriptional regulation, cell signaling pathways, and environmental adaptation. A significant number of proteins that have flavin redox switches are found in the Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domain family and include flavoproteins that act as photosensors and respond to changes in cellular redox conditions. Biochemical and structural studies of PAS domain flavoproteins have revealed key insights into how flavin redox changes are propagated to the surface of the protein and translated into a new functional output such as the binding of a target protein in a signaling pathway. Mechanistic details of proteins unrelated to the PAS domain are also emerging and provide novel examples of how the flavin redox state governs protein-membrane interactions in response to appropriate stimuli. Analysis of different flavin switch proteins reveals shared mechanistic themes for the regulation of protein structure and function by flavins.

Structural basis for membrane binding and catalytic activation of the peripheral membrane enzyme pyruvate oxidase from Escherichia coli

The thiamin- and flavin-dependent peripheral membrane enzyme pyruvate oxidase from E. coli catalyzes the oxidative decarboxylation of the central metabolite pyruvate to CO(2) and acetate. Concomitant reduction of the enzyme-bound flavin triggers membrane binding of the C terminus and shuttling of 2 electrons to ubiquinone 8, a membrane-bound mobile carrier of the electron transport chain. Binding to the membrane in vivo or limited proteolysis in vitro stimulate the catalytic proficiency by 2 orders of magnitude. The molecular mechanisms by which membrane binding and activation are governed have remained enigmatic. Here, we present the X-ray crystal structures of the full-length enzyme and a proteolytically activated truncation variant lacking the last 23 C-terminal residues inferred as important in membrane binding. In conjunction with spectroscopic results, the structural data pinpoint a conformational rearrangement upon activation that exposes the autoinhibitory C terminus, thereby freeing the active site. In the activated enzyme, Phe-465 swings into the active site and wires both cofactors for efficient electron transfer. The isolated C terminus, which has no intrinsic helix propensity, folds into a helical structure in the presence of micelles.

Pyruvate oxidase contributes to the aerobic growth efficiency of Escherichia coli

The metabolic importance of pyruvate oxidase (PoxB), which converts pyruvate directly to acetate and CO(2), was assessed using an isogenic set of genetically engineered strains of Escherichia coli. In a strain lacking the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC), PoxB supported acetate-independent aerobic growth when the poxB gene was expressed constitutively or from the IPTG-inducible tac promoter. Using aerobic glucose-limited chemostat cultures of PDH-null strains, it was found that steady-states could be maintained at a low dilution rate (0.05 h(-1)) when PoxB is expressed from its natural promoter, but not at higher dilution rates (up to at least 0.25 h(-1)) unless expressed constitutively or from the tac promoter. The poor complementation of PDH-deficient strains by poxB plasmids was attributed to several factors including the stationary-phase-dependent regulation of the natural poxB promoter and deleterious effects of the multicopy plasmids. As a consequence of replacing the PDH complex by PoxB, the growth rate (mu(max)), growth yield (Y(max)) and the carbon conversion efficiency (flux to biomass) were lowered by 33%, 9-25% and 29-39% (respectively), indicating that more carbon has to be oxidized to CO(2) for energy generation. Extra energy is needed to convert PoxB-derived acetate to acetyl-CoA for further metabolism and enzyme analysis indicated that acetyl-CoA synthetase is induced for this purpose. In similar experiments with a PoxB-null strain it was shown that PoxB normally makes a significant contribution to the aerobic growth efficiency of E. coli. In glucose minimal medium, the respective growth rates (mu(max)), growth yields (Y(max)) and carbon conversion efficiencies were 16%, 14% and 24% lower than the parental values, and correspondingly more carbon was fluxed to CO(2) for energy generation. It was concluded that PoxB is used preferentially at low growth rates and that E. coli benefits from being able to convert pyruvate to acetyl-CoA by a seemingly wasteful route via acetate.

Sulfhydryl chemistry detects three conformations of the lipid binding region of Escherichia coli pyruvate oxidase

Site-specific disulfide cross-linking experiments detected a conformational change within the C-terminal segment of Escherichia coli pyruvate oxidase (PoxB), a lipid-activated homotetrameric enzyme, upon substrate binding [Chang, Y.-Y., & Cronan, J. E., Jr. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 7896-7901]. The C-terminal lipid binding regions were cross-linked only in the presence of the substrate, pyruvate, and the thiamine pyrophosphate cofactor, indicating close proximity of a pair of C termini. We have now systematically substituted cysteine at 18 additional amino acid positions within the C-terminal region to obtain a panel of 21 proteins each having a single residue changed to cysteine. These proteins have been studied by disulfide cross-linking and by accessibility of the cysteine side chain to a variety of sulfhydryl agents. In the absence of pyruvate, the cysteine residues of the modified PoxB proteins failed to form disulfide bonds, generally failed to react with a large and rigid hydrophilic sulfhydryl reagent, 4-acetamido-4'-[(iodoacetyl)amino]stilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (IASD), and in some cases reacted weakly with a smaller more hydrophobic reagent, N-ethylmaleimide. Therefore, in this conformation, the C termini appear fixed in a rigid environment having limited exposure to solvent. In the presence of pyruvate, all of the C-terminal cysteine residues (except the two most distal from the C terminus) reacted with both sulfhydryl reagents and readily formed disulfide cross-linked species, indicating conversion to a structure having a high degree of conformational freedom. In the presence of lipid activators, Triton X-100 or dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol, a subset of the cysteine-substituted proteins no longer reacted with the membrane-impermeable IASD reagent, indicating penetration of these protein segments into the lipid micelles. For most of the proteins, similar extents of disulfide formation were seen upon addition of an oxidizing agent in the presence or absence of lipid activators. An exception was PoxB D560C which was much more readily cross-linked in the presence of lipid. Moreover, a subset of PoxB proteins that cross-linked to lower extents in the presence of lipids was found. The behavior of these proteins provides strong support for the model in which two C termini associate to form the functional lipid binding domain. These data are discussed in terms of three distinct PoxB conformers and the known crystal structure of a highly related protein.

Detection by site-specific disulfide cross-linking of a conformational change in binding of Escherichia coli pyruvate oxidase to lipid bilayers

Escherichia coli pyruvate oxidase, a peripheral membrane homotetrameric flavoprotein, exposes its C-terminal lipid binding site in the presence of substrate pyruvate and co-factor thiamine pyrophosphate Mg2+ and binds tightly to phospholipid bilayers during catalysis. Using site-specific disulfide cross-linking, we demonstrate that disulfide cross-links are formed between C termini of D560C pyruvate oxidase and that the degree of cross-linking is greatly increased by the presence of substrate and co-factors indicating a conformational change that results in juxtaposition of two subunit C termini. The cross-linked oxidase is enzymatically active and remains able to associate with lipid micelles. These results argue strongly that lipid bilayer binding of pyruvate oxidase involves pairing of the C termini of two subunits.

Binding of pyruvate oxidase alpha-peptide to phospholipid vesicles

The alpha-peptide of pyruvate oxidase is a 23 residue peptide which is cleaved from the carboxy terminus of the enzyme during proteolytic activation by chymotrypsin (M. Recny et al. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 14287-14291). Cleavage of alpha-peptide results in the loss of the high affinity lipid-binding site in the enzyme. The beta-peptide of pyruvate oxidase is a 101 residue peptide which also is cleaved from the carboxy terminus of pyruvate oxidase. Cleavage of the beta-peptide from pyruvate oxidase results in the inactivation of the enzyme. The beta-peptide includes the alpha-peptide amino acid sequences at its carboxyl terminus. We now report on the binding of the alpha- and beta-peptides to phospholipid vesicles. Both peptides bind with equal and high affinity to phosphatidylcholine vesicles. We conclude from these results that the alpha-peptide furnishes the membrane-binding site which plays the physiologically important role in the activation of this peripheral membrane enzyme.

Post-translational modifications of chloroperoxidase from Caldariomyces fumago

The secreted form of the halogenating glycoenzyme, chloroperoxidase, is processed from a precursor containing a 21-residue-long, moderately hydrophobic signal sequence, at an atypical Gln-Glu peptide bond. Following cleavage, the N-terminal glutamic acid readily cyclizes into pyroglutamic acid. Chloroperoxidase contains two high-mannose N-glycosylation sites, identified as Asn12 and Asn213. Other modifications include deamidation of residues Asn13, Asn198, and Gln183 into the corresponding acids. Finally, structural arguments suggest that Cys87 may be the axial heme ligand in the active site of chloroperoxidase.

In vivo function of Escherichia coli pyruvate oxidase specifically requires a functional lipid binding site

The pyruvate oxidase of Escherichia coli is a peripheral membrane flavoprotein that is dramatically activated by lipids. The enzyme strongly binds to phospholipid vesicles in vitro. In vivo, in addition to enzyme activation, binding is thought to be important to provide access of the enzyme to ubiquinone dissolved in the lipid bilayer. It was unclear if both or either of these attributes is needed for enzyme function in vivo. To differentiate between activation and lipid binding, we have constructed, using recombinant DNA techniques, a mutant gene that produces a truncated protein. The truncated protein lacks the last 24 amino acids of the C-terminus of the oxidase (due to introduction of a translation termination codon) and thus is closely analogous to the activated species produced in vitro by limited chymotrypsin cleavage [Recny, M.A., Grabau, C., Cronan, J.E., Jr., & Hager, L.P. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 14287-14291]. The truncated protein (like the protease-derived species) is fully active in vitro in the absence of lipid, and its activity is not further increased by addition of lipid activators. Moreover, the truncated enzyme fails to bind Triton X-114, a detergent that binds to and activates the wild-type oxidase. Strains producing the truncated protein were devoid of oxidase activity in vivo. This result indicates that binding to membrane lipids is specifically required for function of the oxidase in vivo; activation alone does not suffice.