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Wang F, Fang J, Guan K, Luo S, Dogra V, Li B, Ma D, Zhao X, Lee KP, Sun P, Xin J, Liu T, Xing W, Kim C. The Arabidopsis CRUMPLED LEAF protein, a homolog of the cyanobacterial bilin lyase, retains the bilin-binding pocket for a yet unknown function. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 104:964-978. [PMID: 32860438 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The photosynthetic bacterial phycobiliprotein lyases, also called CpcT lyases, catalyze the biogenesis of phycobilisome, a light-harvesting antenna complex, through the covalent attachment of chromophores to the antenna proteins. The Arabidopsis CRUMPLED LEAF (CRL) protein is a homolog of the cyanobacterial CpcT lyase. Loss of CRL leads to multiple lesions, including localized foliar cell death, constitutive expression of stress-related nuclear genes, abnormal cell cycle, and impaired plastid division. Notwithstanding the apparent phenotypes, the function of CRL still remains elusive. To gain insight into the function of CRL, we examined whether CRL still retains the capacity to bind with the bacterial chromophore phycocyanobilin (PCB) and its plant analog phytochromobilin (PΦB). The revealed structure of the CpcT domain of CRL is comparable to that of the CpcT lyase, despite the low sequence identity. The subsequent in vitro biochemical assays found, as shown for the CpcT lyase, that PCB/PΦB binds to the CRL dimer. However, some mutant forms of CRL, substantially compromised in their bilin-binding ability, still restore the crl-induced multiple lesions. These results suggest that although CRL retains the bilin-binding pocket, it seems not functionally associated with the crl-induced multiple lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Wang
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jun Fang
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Kaoling Guan
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Shengji Luo
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Vivek Dogra
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Bingqi Li
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Demin Ma
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xinyan Zhao
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Keun Pyo Lee
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Pengkai Sun
- National Center for Protein Science Shanghai, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yueyang Road, Shanghai, 200031, China
| | - Jian Xin
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Tong Liu
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Weiman Xing
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, 200234, China
| | - Chanhong Kim
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology and CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
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Nagano S, Guan K, Shenkutie SM, Feiler C, Weiss M, Kraskov A, Buhrke D, Hildebrandt P, Hughes J. Structural insights into photoactivation and signalling in plant phytochromes. NATURE PLANTS 2020; 6:581-588. [PMID: 32366982 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-020-0638-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Plant phytochromes are red/far-red photochromic photoreceptors that act as master regulators of development, controlling the expression of thousands of genes. Here, we describe the crystal structures of four plant phytochrome sensory modules, three at about 2 Å resolution or better, including the first of an A-type phytochrome. Together with extensive spectral data, these structures provide detailed insight into the structure and function of plant phytochromes. In the Pr state, the substitution of phycocyanobilin and phytochromobilin cofactors has no structural effect, nor does the amino-terminal extension play a significant functional role. Our data suggest that the chromophore propionates and especially the phytochrome-specific domain tongue act differently in plant and prokaryotic phytochromes. We find that the photoproduct in period-ARNT-single-minded (PAS)-cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase-adenylyl cyclase-FhlA (GAF) bidomains might represent a novel intermediate between MetaRc and Pfr. We also discuss the possible role of a likely nuclear localization signal specific to and conserved in the phytochrome A lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soshichiro Nagano
- Institut für Pflanzenphysiologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Gießen, Germany
| | - Kaoling Guan
- Institut für Pflanzenphysiologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Gießen, Germany
| | | | - Christian Feiler
- BESSY II, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Berlin, Germany
| | - Manfred Weiss
- BESSY II, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anastasia Kraskov
- Institut für Chemie, Sekr. PC14, Technische Universität, Berlin, Germany
| | - David Buhrke
- Institut für Chemie, Sekr. PC14, Technische Universität, Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Hildebrandt
- Institut für Chemie, Sekr. PC14, Technische Universität, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jon Hughes
- Institut für Pflanzenphysiologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Gießen, Germany.
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Ohno A, Takeshima SN, Matsumoto Y, Aida Y. Risk factors associated with increased bovine leukemia virus proviral load in infected cattle in Japan from 2012 to 2014. Virus Res 2015; 210:283-90. [PMID: 26321160 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2015.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Revised: 08/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is the causative agent of enzootic bovine leukosis, a malignant B cell lymphoma. BLV has spread worldwide and causes serious problems. After infection, the BLV genome is integrated into the host DNA and can be amplified during periods of latency. We previously designed degenerate primers using the Coordination of Common Motifs (CoCoMo) algorithm to establish a new quantitative real-time PCR method (BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR-2) of measuring the proviral load of both known and novel BLV variants. Here, we aimed to examine the correlation between proviral load and risk factors for BLV infection, such as breeding systems, parousity, and colostrum feeding. Blood and serum samples were collected from 83 BLV-positive farms in 22 prefectures of Japan, and the BLV proviral load and anti-BLV antibody levels were measured. BLV was detected in 73.3% (1039/1,417) of cattle by BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR-2 and the provirus was detected in 93 of 1039 antibody-negative samples. The results showed that the proviral load increased with progression of lymphocytosis. Next, the risk factors associated with increasing BLV infection rate were examined along with any association with proviral load. The proviral load was higher in cattle with lymphocytosis than in healthy cattle, and higher in multiparous cows than in nulliparous cows. Finally, proviral loads were higher in contact breeding systems than in non-contact breeding systems. Taken together, these findings may help to formulate a plan for eliminating BLV from contaminated farms. This is the first nationwide study to estimate BLV proviral load in Japanese cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayumu Ohno
- Viral Infectious Diseases Unit, RIKEN, 2-1Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | | | - Yuki Matsumoto
- Viral Infectious Diseases Unit, RIKEN, 2-1Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Yoko Aida
- Viral Infectious Diseases Unit, RIKEN, 2-1Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan.
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Luo Q, Lian HL, He SB, Li L, Jia KP, Yang HQ. COP1 and phyB Physically Interact with PIL1 to Regulate Its Stability and Photomorphogenic Development in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2014; 26:2441-2456. [PMID: 24951480 PMCID: PMC4114944 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.113.121657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
In Arabidopsis thaliana, the cryptochrome and phytochrome photoreceptors act together to promote photomorphogenic development. The cryptochrome and phytochrome signaling mechanisms interact directly with CONSTITUTIVELY PHOTOMORPHOGENIC1 (COP1), a RING motif-containing E3 ligase that acts to negatively regulate photomorphogenesis. COP1 interacts with and ubiquitinates the transcription factors that promote photomorphogenesis, such as ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL5 and LONG HYPOCOTYL IN FAR-RED1 (HFR1), to inhibit photomorphogenic development. Here, we show that COP1 physically interacts with PIF3-LIKE1 (PIL1) and promotes PIL1 degradation via the 26S proteasome. We further demonstrate that phyB physically interacts with PIL1 and enhances PIL1 protein accumulation upon red light irradiation, probably through suppressing the COP1-PIL1 association. Biochemical and genetic studies indicate that PIL1 and HFR1 form heterodimers and promote photomorphogenesis cooperatively. Moreover, we demonstrate that PIL1 interacts with PIF1, 3, 4, and 5, resulting in the inhibition of the transcription of PIF direct-target genes. Our results reveal that PIL1 stability is regulated by phyB and COP1, likely through physical interactions, and that PIL1 coordinates with HFR1 to inhibit the transcriptional activity of PIFs, suggesting that PIL1, HFR1, and PIFs constitute a subset of antagonistic basic helix-loop-helix factors acting downstream of phyB and COP1 to regulate photomorphogenic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Luo
- Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South) Ministry of Agriculture and School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Hong-Li Lian
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Sheng-Bo He
- Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South) Ministry of Agriculture and School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Ling Li
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Kun-Peng Jia
- Key Laboratory of Urban Agriculture (South) Ministry of Agriculture and School of Agriculture and Biology, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Hong-Quan Yang
- School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Shanghai 200240, China Collaborative Innovation Center for Genetics and Development, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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Jimba M, Takeshima SN, Murakami H, Kohara J, Kobayashi N, Matsuhashi T, Ohmori T, Nunoya T, Aida Y. BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR: a useful tool for evaluating bovine leukemia virus infection status. BMC Vet Res 2012; 8:167. [PMID: 22995575 PMCID: PMC3489618 DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is associated with enzootic bovine leukosis, which is the most common neoplastic disease of cattle. BLV infects cattle worldwide, imposing a severe economic impact on the dairy cattle industry. Recently, we developed a new quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method using Coordination of Common Motifs (CoCoMo) primers to measure the proviral load of known and novel BLV variants in BLV-infected animals. Indeed, the assay was highly effective in detecting BLV in cattle from a range of international locations. This assay enabled us to demonstrate that proviral load correlates not only with BLV infection capacity as assessed by syncytium formation, but also with BLV disease progression. In this study, we compared the sensitivity of our BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR method for detecting BLV proviruses with the sensitivities of two real-time PCR systems, and also determined the differences of proviral load with serotests. RESULTS BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR was found to be highly sensitive when compared with the real-time PCR-based TaqMan MGB assay developed by Lew et al. and the commercial TaKaRa cycleave PCR system. The BLV copy number determined by BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR was only partially correlated with the positive rate for anti-BLV antibody as determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, passive hemagglutination reaction, or agar gel immunodiffusion. This result indicates that, although serotests are widely used for the diagnosis of BLV infection, it is difficult to detect BLV infection with confidence by using serological tests alone. Two cattle were experimentally infected with BLV. The kinetics of the provirus did not precisely correlate with the change in anti-BLV antibody production. Moreover, both reactions were different in cattle that carried different bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA)-DRB3 genotypes. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that the quantitative measurement of proviral load by BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR is useful tool for evaluating the progression of BLV-induced disease. BLV-CoCoMo-qPCR allows us to monitor the spread of BLV infection in different viewpoint compared with classical serotest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayuko Jimba
- Viral Infectious Diseases Unit, RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
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Gärtner W. Kurt Schaffner: from organic photochemistry to photobiology. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2012; 11:872-80. [DOI: 10.1039/c2pp05405a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Shang L, Rockwell NC, Martin SS, Lagarias JC. Biliverdin amides reveal roles for propionate side chains in bilin reductase recognition and in holophytochrome assembly and photoconversion. Biochemistry 2010; 49:6070-82. [PMID: 20565135 DOI: 10.1021/bi100756x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Linear tetrapyrroles (bilins) perform important antioxidant and light-harvesting functions in cells from bacteria to humans. To explore the role of the propionate moieties in bilin metabolism, we report the semisynthesis of mono- and diamides of biliverdin IXalpha and those of its non-natural XIIIalpha isomer. Initially, these were examined as substrates of two types of NADPH-dependent biliverdin reductase, BVR and BvdR, and of the representative ferredoxin-dependent bilin reductase, phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PcyA). Our studies indicate that the NADPH-dependent biliverdin reductases are less accommodating to amidation of the propionic acid side chains of biliverdin IXalpha than PcyA, which does not require free carboxylic acid side chains to yield its phytobilin product, phycocyanobilin. Bilin amides were also assembled with BV-type and phytobilin-type apophytochromes, demonstrating a role for the 8-propionate in the formation of the spectroscopically native P(r) dark states of these biliprotein photosensors. Neither ionizable propionate side chain proved to be essential to primary photoisomerization for both classes of phytochromes, but an unsubstituted 12-propionate was required for full photointerconversion of phytobilin-type phytochrome Cph1. Taken together, these studies provide insight into the roles of the ionizable propionate side chains in substrate discrimination by two bilin reductase families while further underscoring the mechanistic differences between the photoconversions of BV-type and phytobilin-type phytochromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixia Shang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, USA
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Schwinté P, Gärtner W, Sharda S, Mroginski MA, Hildebrandt P, Siebert F. The Photoreactions of Recombinant Phytochrome CphA from the CyanobacteriumCalothrixPCC7601: A Low-Temperature UV-Vis and FTIR Study. Photochem Photobiol 2009; 85:239-49. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2008.00426.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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The structure of a complete phytochrome sensory module in the Pr ground state. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:14709-14. [PMID: 18799745 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0806477105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 322] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytochromes are red/far-red photochromic biliprotein photoreceptors, which in plants regulate seed germination, stem extension, flowering time, and many other light effects. However, the structure/functional basis of the phytochrome photoswitch is still unclear. Here, we report the ground state structure of the complete sensory module of Cph1 phytochrome from the cyanobacterium Synechocystis 6803. Although the phycocyanobilin (PCB) chromophore is attached to Cys-259 as expected, paralleling the situation in plant phytochromes but contrasting to that in bacteriophytochromes, the ZZZssa conformation does not correspond to that expected from Raman spectroscopy. We show that the PHY domain, previously considered unique to phytochromes, is structurally a member of the GAF (cGMP phosphodiesterase/adenylyl cyclase/FhlA) family. Indeed, the tandem-GAF dumbbell revealed for phytochrome sensory modules is remarkably similar to the regulatory domains of cyclic nucleotide (cNMP) phosphodiesterases and adenylyl cyclases. A unique feature of the phytochrome structure is a long, tongue-like protrusion from the PHY domain that seals the chromophore pocket and stabilizes the photoactivated far-red-absorbing state (Pfr). The tongue carries a conserved PRxSF motif, from which an arginine finger points into the chromophore pocket close to ring D forming a salt bridge with a conserved aspartate residue. The structure that we present provides a framework for light-driven signal transmission in phytochromes.
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FTIR study of the photoinduced processes of plant phytochrome phyA using isotope-labeled bilins and density functional theory calculations. Biophys J 2008; 95:1256-67. [PMID: 18390618 DOI: 10.1529/biophysj.108.131441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to analyze the chromophore structure in the parent states Pr and Pfr of plant phytochrome phyA and the respective photoproducts lumi-R and lumi-F. The spectra were obtained from phyA adducts assembled with either uniformly or selectively isotope-labeled phytochromobilin and phycocyanobilin. The interpretation of the experimental spectra is based on the spectra of chromophore models calculated by density functional theory. Global (13)C-labeling of the tetrapyrrole allows for the discrimination between chromophore and protein bands in the Fourier transform infrared difference spectra. All infrared difference spectra display a prominent difference band attributable to a stretching mode with large contributions from the methine bridge between the inner pyrrole rings (B-C stretching). Due to mode coupling, frequencies and isotopic shifts of this mode suggest that the Pr chromophore may adopt a distorted ZZZssa or ZZZasa geometry with a twisted A-B methine bridge. The transition to lumi-R is associated with only minor changes of the amide I bands indicating limited protein structural changes during the isomerization site of the C-D methine bridge. Major protein structural changes occur upon the transition to Pfr in which the chromophore adopts a ZZEssa or ZZEasa-like state. In addition, specific interactions with the protein alter the structure of the B-C methine bridge as concluded from the substantial downshift of the respective stretching mode. These interactions are removed during the photoreaction to lumi-F (ZZE-->ZZZ), which involves only small protein structural changes.
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Inomata K. Studies on the Structure and Function of Phytochromes as Photoreceptors Based on Synthetic Organic Chemistry. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2008. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.81.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Abstract
This review is concerned specifically with the structures and biosynthesis of hemes in E. coli and serovar Typhimurium. However, inasmuch as all tetrapyrroles share a common biosynthetic pathway, much of the material covered here is applicable to tetrapyrrole biosynthesis in other organisms. Conversely, much of the available information about tetrapyrrole biosynthesis has been gained from studies of other organisms, such as plants, algae, cyanobacteria, and anoxygenic phototrophs, which synthesize large quantities of these compounds. This information is applicable to E. coli and serovar Typhimurium. Hemes play important roles as enzyme prosthetic groups in mineral nutrition, redox metabolism, and gas-and redox-modulated signal transduction. The biosynthetic steps from the earliest universal precursor, 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), to protoporphyrin IX-based hemes constitute the major, common portion of the pathway, and other steps leading to specific groups of products can be considered branches off the main axis. Porphobilinogen (PBG) synthase (PBGS; also known as ALA dehydratase) catalyzes the asymmetric condensation of two ALA molecules to form PBG, with the release of two molecules of H2O. Protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPX) catalyzes the removal of six electrons from the tetrapyrrole macrocycle to form protoporphyrin IX in the last biosynthetic step that is common to hemes and chlorophylls. Several lines of evidence converge to support a regulatory model in which the cellular level of available or free protoheme controls the rate of heme synthesis at the level of the first step unique to heme synthesis, the formation of GSA by the action of GTR.
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Mateos JL, Luppi JP, Ogorodnikova OB, Sineshchekov VA, Yanovsky MJ, Braslavsky SE, Gärtner W, Casal JJ. Functional and Biochemical Analysis of the N-terminal Domain of Phytochrome A. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:34421-9. [PMID: 16966335 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m603538200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytochrome A (phyA) is a versatile plant photoreceptor that mediates responses to brief light exposures (very low fluence responses, VLFR) as well as to prolonged irradiation (high irradiance responses, HIR). We identified the phyA-303 mutant allele of Arabidopsis thaliana bearing an R384K substitution in the GAF subdomain of the N-terminal half of phyA. phyA-303 showed reduced phyA spectral activity, almost normal VLFR, and severely impaired HIR. Recombinant N-terminal half oat of PHYA bearing the phyA-303 mutation showed poor incorporation of chromophore in vitro, despite the predicted relatively long distance (>13 A) between the mutation and the closest ring of the chromophore. Fusion proteins bearing the N-terminal domain of oat phyA, beta-glucuronidase, green fluorescent protein, and a nuclear localization signal showed physiological activity in darkness and mediated VLFR but not HIR. At equal protein levels, the phyA-303 mutation caused slightly less activity than the fusions containing the wild-type sequence. Taken together, these studies highlight the role of the N-terminal domain of phyA in signaling and of distant residues of the GAF subdomain in the regulation of phytochrome bilin-lyase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julieta L Mateos
- Max-Planck-Institut für Bioanorganische Chemie, Postfach 101356, D-45413 Mülheim an der Ruhr, Germany
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Emborg TJ, Walker JM, Noh B, Vierstra RD. Multiple heme oxygenase family members contribute to the biosynthesis of the phytochrome chromophore in Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2006; 140:856-68. [PMID: 16428602 PMCID: PMC1400562 DOI: 10.1104/pp.105.074211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The oxidative cleavage of heme by heme oxygenases (HOs) to form biliverdin IXalpha (BV) is the committed step in the biosynthesis of the phytochrome (phy) chromophore and thus essential for proper photomorphogenesis in plants. Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) contains four possible HO genes (HY1, HO2-4). Genetic analysis of the HY1 locus showed previously that it is the major source of BV with hy1 mutant plants displaying long hypocotyls and decreased chlorophyll accumulation consistent with a substantial deficiency in photochemically active phys. More recent analysis of HO2 suggested that it also plays a role in phy assembly and photomorphogenesis but the ho2 mutant phenotype is more subtle than that of hy1 mutants. Here, we define the functions of HO3 and HO4 in Arabidopsis. Like HY1, the HO3 and HO4 proteins have the capacity to synthesize BV from heme. Through a phenotypic analysis of T-DNA insertion mutants affecting HO3 and HO4 in combination with mutants affecting HY1 or HO2, we demonstrate that both of the encoded proteins also have roles in photomorphogenesis, especially in the absence of HY1. Disruption of HO3 and HO4 in the hy1 background further desensitizes seedlings to red and far-red light and accelerates flowering time, with the triple mutant strongly resembling seedlings deficient in the synthesis of multiple phy apoproteins. The hy1/ho3/ho4 mutant can be rescued phenotypically and for the accumulation of holo-phy by feeding seedlings BV. Taken together, we conclude that multiple members of the Arabidopsis HO family are important for synthesizing the bilin chromophore used to assemble photochemically active phys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J Emborg
- Department of Genetics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 53706, USA
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Mukougawa K, Kanamoto H, Kobayashi T, Yokota A, Kohchi T. Metabolic engineering to produce phytochromes with phytochromobilin, phycocyanobilin, or phycoerythrobilin chromophore inEscherichia coli. FEBS Lett 2006; 580:1333-8. [PMID: 16458890 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2006.01.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2005] [Revised: 01/16/2006] [Accepted: 01/16/2006] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
By co-expression of heme oxygenase and various bilin reductase(s) in a single operon in conjunction with apophytochrome using two compatible plasmids, we developed a system to produce phytochromes with various chromophores in Escherichia coli. Through the selection of different bilin reductases, apophytochromes were assembled with phytochromobilin, phycocyanobilin, and phycoerythrobilin. The blue-shifted difference spectra of truncated phytochromes were observed with a phycocyanobilin chromophore compared to a phytochromobilin chromophore. When the phycoerythrobilin biosynthetic enzymes were co-expressed, E. coli cells accumulated orange-fluorescent phytochrome. The metabolic engineering of bacteria for the production of various bilins for assembly into phytochromes will facilitate the molecular analysis of photoreceptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko Mukougawa
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 8916-5 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan
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Chen M, Tao Y, Lim J, Shaw A, Chory J. Regulation of phytochrome B nuclear localization through light-dependent unmasking of nuclear-localization signals. Curr Biol 2005; 15:637-42. [PMID: 15823535 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2005.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2004] [Revised: 01/13/2005] [Accepted: 02/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Phytochromes are red and far-red photoreceptors that regulate plant growth and development in response to environmental light cues. Phytochromes exist in two photo-interconvertible conformational states: an inactive Pr form and an active Pfr form. The alteration of phytochromes' subcellular location functions as a major regulatory mechanism of their biological activities. Whereas phytochromes in the Pr form localize in the cytoplasm, phytochromes in the Pfr form accumulate in the nucleus, where they interact with transcription factors to regulate gene expression. The molecular details of the regulation of phytochrome translocation by light are poorly understood. Using Arabidopsis phyB as a model, we demonstrate that the C-terminal PAS-related domain (PRD) is both necessary and sufficient for phyB nuclear import and that the entire C terminus is required for nuclear-body (NB) localization. We also show that phyB's N-terminal bilin lyase domain (BLD) and PHY domain interact directly with the PRD in a light-dependent manner. In vivo localization studies indicate that BLD-PHY is sufficient to regulate phyB's nuclear accumulation. For phyB nuclear localization, our results suggest a molecular mechanism in which the nuclear-localization signal in the PRD is masked by interactions with phyB's chromophore-attachment domains and unmasked by light-dependent conformational changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Chen
- Plant Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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17
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Terauchi K, Montgomery BL, Grossman AR, Lagarias JC, Kehoe DM. RcaE is a complementary chromatic adaptation photoreceptor required for green and red light responsiveness. Mol Microbiol 2004; 51:567-77. [PMID: 14756794 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03853.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The recent discovery of large numbers of phytochrome photoreceptor genes in both photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic prokaryotes has led to efforts to understand their physiological roles in environmental acclimation. One receptor in this class, RcaE, is involved in controlling complementary chromatic adaptation, a process that regulates the transcription of operons encoding light-harvesting proteins in cyanobacteria. Although all previously identified phytochrome responses are maximally sensitive to red and far red light, complementary chromatic adaptation is unique in that it is responsive to green and red light. Here, we present biochemical and genetic evidence demonstrating that RcaE is a photoreceptor and that it requires the cysteine at position 198 to ligate an open chain tetrapyrrole covalently in a manner analogous to chromophore attachment in plant phytochromes. Furthermore, although the wild-type rcaE gene can rescue red and green light photoresponses of an rcaE null mutant, a gene in which the codon for cysteine 198 is converted to an alanine codon rescues the red light but not the green light response. Thus, RcaE is a photoreceptor that is required for both green and red light responsiveness during complementary chromatic adaptation and is the first identified phytochrome class sensor that is involved in sensing and responding to green and red light rather than red and far red light.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuki Terauchi
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
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18
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Kami C, Mukougawa K, Muramoto T, Yokota A, Shinomura T, Lagarias JC, Kohchi T. Complementation of phytochrome chromophore-deficient Arabidopsis by expression of phycocyanobilin:ferredoxin oxidoreductase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:1099-104. [PMID: 14722358 PMCID: PMC327157 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0307615100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The covalently bound phytochromobilin (PphiB) prosthetic group is required for the diverse photoregulatory activities of all members of the phytochrome family in vascular plants, whereas by contrast, green algal and cyanobacterial phytochromes use the more reduced linear tetrapyrrole pigment phycocyanobilin (PCB). To assess the functional consequence of the substitution of PphiB with PCB in plants, the phytochrome chromophore-deficient hy2 mutant of Arabidopsis was transformed with a constitutively expressed pcyA gene that encodes the cyanobacterial enzyme, PCB:ferredoxin oxidoreductase. Spectroscopic analyses of extracts from etiolated seedlings revealed that PcyA expression restored photoactive phytochrome to WT levels, albeit with blue-shifted absorption maxima, while also restoring light lability to phytochrome A. Photobiological measurements indicated that PcyA expression rescued phytochrome-mediated red high-irradiance responses, low-fluence red/far-red (FR) photoreversible responses, and very-low-fluence responses, thus confirming that PCB can functionally substitute for PphiB for these photoregulatory activities. Although PcyA expression failed to rescue phytochrome A-mediated FR high-irradiance responsivity to that of WT, our studies indicate that the FR high-irradiance response is fully functional in pcyA-expressing plants but shifted to shorter wavelengths, indicating that PCB can functionally complement this phytochrome-mediated response in vascular plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chitose Kami
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 8916-5 Takayama, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan
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19
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20
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Bhoo SH, Davis SJ, Walker J, Karniol B, Vierstra RD. Bacteriophytochromes are photochromic histidine kinases using a biliverdin chromophore. Nature 2001; 414:776-9. [PMID: 11742406 DOI: 10.1038/414776a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Phytochromes comprise a principal family of red/far-red light sensors in plants. Although phytochromes were thought originally to be confined to photosynthetic organisms, we have recently detected phytochrome-like proteins in two heterotrophic eubacteria, Deinococcus radiodurans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Here we show that these form part of a widespread family of bacteriophytochromes (BphPs) with homology to two-component sensor histidine kinases. Whereas plant phytochromes use phytochromobilin as the chromophore, BphPs assemble with biliverdin, an immediate breakdown product of haem, to generate photochromic kinases that are modulated by red and far-red light. In some cases, a unique haem oxygenase responsible for the synthesis of biliverdin is part of the BphP operon. Co-expression of this oxygenase with a BphP apoprotein and a haem source is sufficient to assemble holo-BphP in vivo. Both their presence in many diverse bacteria and their simplified assembly with biliverdin suggest that BphPs are the progenitors of phytochrome-type photoreceptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Bhoo
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Program, Department of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1575 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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21
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Hanzawa H, Inomata K, Kinoshita H, Kakiuchi T, Jayasundera KP, Sawamoto D, Ohta A, Uchida K, Wada K, Furuya M. In vitro assembly of phytochrome B apoprotein with synthetic analogs of the phytochrome chromophore. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98:3612-7. [PMID: 11248126 PMCID: PMC30701 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.051629698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytochrome B (PhyB), one of the major photosensory chromoproteins in plants, mediates a variety of light-responsive developmental processes in a photoreversible manner. To analyze the structural requirements of the chromophore for the spectral properties of PhyB, we have designed and chemically synthesized 20 analogs of the linear tetrapyrrole (bilin) chromophore and reconstituted them with PhyB apoprotein (PHYB). The A-ring acts mainly as the anchor for ligation to PHYB, because the modification of the side chains at the C2 and C3 positions did not significantly influence the formation or difference spectra of adducts. In contrast, the side chains of the B- and C-rings are crucial to position the chromophore properly in the chromophore pocket of PHYB and for photoreversible spectral changes. The side-chain structure of the D-ring is required for the photoreversible spectral change of the adducts. When methyl and ethyl groups at the C17 and C18 positions are replaced with an n-propyl, n-pentyl, or n-octyl group, respectively, the photoreversible spectral change of the adducts depends on the length of the side chains. From these studies, we conclude that each pyrrole ring of the linear tetrapyrrole chromophore plays a different role in chromophore assembly and the photochromic properties of PhyB.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Hanzawa
- Hitachi Advanced Research Laboratory, Hatoyama, Saitama 350-0395, Japan
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22
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Abstract
The phytochromes, photoreceptors sensitive to red and far-red light, are critical for sensing foliage shade, canopy breaks, and neighbor proximity. A combination of molecular genetic, evolutionary, and ecological techniques are being used to understand how phytochromes function in the natural environment. We discuss studies on the adaptive value of phytochrome mediated plasticity, as well as the role that variation in phytochrome expression and function might play in allowing plants to adapt to unique light environments. Continued study of phytochrome signaling variation may reveal how natural selection acts at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- J N Maloof
- Plant Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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23
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Vierstra RD, Davis SJ. Bacteriophytochromes: new tools for understanding phytochrome signal transduction. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2000; 11:511-21. [PMID: 11145881 DOI: 10.1006/scdb.2000.0206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The recent discovery of phytochrome-like photoreceptors, collectively called bacteriophytochromes, in a number of bacteria has greatly expanded our understanding of the origins and modes of action of phytochromes in higher plants. These primitive receptors contain an N-terminal domain homologous to the chromophore-binding pocket of phytochromes, and like phytochromes, they bind a variety of bilins to generate photochromic holoproteins. Following the chromophore pocket is a domain similar to two-component histidine kinases, suggesting that these bacterial photoreceptors function in phosphorelay cascades that respond to the light environment. Their organization and distribution support the views that higher-plant phytochromes evolved from a cyanobacterial precursor and that they act as light-regulated kinases. With the ability to exploit bacterial genetics, these bacteriophytochromes now offer simple models to help unravel the biochemical and biophysical events that initiate phytochrome signal transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Vierstra
- Cellular and Molecular Biology and Genetics Programs and the Department of Horticulture, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1575 Linden Drive Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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24
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Lindner I, Braslavsky SE, Schaffner K, Gärtner W. Model Studies of Phytochrome Photochromism: Protein-Mediated Photoisomerization of a Linear Tetrapyrrole in the Absence of Covalent Bonding This work is part of the PhD thesis of I. Lindner, Max-Planck-Institut für Strahlenchemie, Mülheim an der Ruhr, and Gerhard-Mercator-Universität, Duisburg, 2000. We thank Tanja Berndsen, Gül Koç, and Helene Steffen for technical assistance. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2000; 39:3269-3271. [PMID: 11028073 DOI: 10.1002/1521-3773(20000915)39:18<3269::aid-anie3269>3.0.co;2-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I Lindner
- Max-Planck-Institut für Strahlenchemie Postfach 101365, 45413 Mülheim an der Ruhr (Germany)
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25
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Lindner I, Braslavsky S, Schaffner K, Gärtner W. Modellstudien zum Photochromismus des Phytochroms – proteingesteuerte Photoisomerisierung eines nicht kovalent gebundenen offenkettigen Tetrapyrrols. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2000. [DOI: 10.1002/1521-3757(20000915)112:18<3398::aid-ange3398>3.0.co;2-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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26
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Wu SH, McDowell MT, Lagarias JC. Phycocyanobilin is the natural precursor of the phytochrome chromophore in the green alga Mesotaenium caldariorum. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:25700-5. [PMID: 9325294 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.41.25700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Compared with phytochromes isolated from etiolated higher plant tissues and a number of lower plant species, the absorption spectrum of phytochrome isolated from the unicellular green alga Mesotaenium caldariorum is blue-shifted (Kidd, D. G., and Lagarias, J. C. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 7029-7035). The present studies were undertaken to determine whether this blue shift is due to a chromophore other than phytochromobilin or reflects a different protein environment for the phytochromobilin prosthetic group. Using reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography, we show that soluble protein extracts prepared from algal chloroplasts contain the enzyme activities for ferredoxin-dependent conversions of biliverdin IXalpha to (3Z)-phytochromobilin and (3Z)-phytochromobilin to (3Z)-phycocyanobilin. In vitro assembly of recombinant algal apophytochrome was undertaken with (3E)-phytochromobilin and (3E)-phycocyanobilin. The difference spectrum of the (3E)-phycocyanobilin adduct was indistinguishable from that of phytochrome isolated from dark-adapted algal cells, while the (3E)-phytochromobilin adduct displayed red-shifted absorption maxima relative to purified algal phytochrome. These studies indicate that phycocyanobilin is the immediate precursor of the green algal phytochrome chromophore and that phytochromobilin is an intermediate in its biosynthesis in Mesotaenium.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Wu
- Section of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
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27
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Sineshchekov VA. Photobiophysics and photobiochemistry of the heterogeneous phytochrome system. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA (BBA) - BIOENERGETICS 1995; 1228:125-164. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.1016/0005-2728(94)00173-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
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28
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Photobiophysics and photobiochemistry of the heterogeneous phytochrome system. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOENERGETICS 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0005-2728(94)00173-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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29
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Elich TD, Chory J. Initial events in phytochrome signalling: still in the dark. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1994; 26:1315-1327. [PMID: 7858193 DOI: 10.1007/bf00016477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- T D Elich
- Plant Biology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, San Diego, CA 92186-5800
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30
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Terry MJ, Maines MD, Lagarias JC. Inactivation of phytochrome- and phycobiliprotein-chromophore precursors by rat liver biliverdin reductase. J Biol Chem 1993. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)74286-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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31
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Kunkel T, Tomizawa K, Kern R, Furuya M, Chua NH, Schäfer E. In vitro formation of a photoreversible adduct of phycocyanobilin and tobacco apophytochrome B. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1993; 215:587-94. [PMID: 8354265 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1993.tb18069.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The light-stable tobacco phytochrome apoprotein (PHYB) expressed in yeast can be assembled with phycocyanobilin to give a photoreversible adduct. The spectral properties of the reconstituted PHYB-phycocyanobilin species were determined by absorbacen and difference absorbance spectroscopies. The holoprotein exhibits absorbance maxima at 408 nm and 712 nm for the far-red-light-absorbing (Pfr) form and 356 nm and 658 nm for the red-light-absorbing (Pr) form. The ligation of the chromophores to the dimeric PHYB apoprotein resulted in a PHYB-phycocyanobilin adduct with the spectral properties of the Pr form. Kinetic analyses of the in vitro reconstitution for PHYB apoprotein under saturating concentrations of phycocyanobilin revealed a pseudo first-order rate constant of 2.8 x 10(-2)s.-1. The similarity with the reported rate constant for the reconstitution of light-labile phytochrome (PHYA) from oat [Li, L. & Lagarias, J.C. (1992) Phytochrome assembly, J. Biol. Chem. 267, 19,204-19,210] suggests that the mechanisms of chromophore attachment are probably very similar for PHYA and PHYB.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Kunkel
- Institut für Biologie II, Universität Freiburg, Germany
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32
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Phytochrome assembly. Defining chromophore structural requirements for covalent attachment and photoreversibility. J Biol Chem 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)41762-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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33
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Cornejo J, Beale S, Terry M, Lagarias J. Phytochrome assembly. The structure and biological activity of 2(R),3(E)-phytochromobilin derived from phycobiliproteins. J Biol Chem 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)42109-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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34
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Beale S, Cornejo J. Biosynthesis of phycobilins. 15,16-Dihydrobiliverdin IX alpha is a partially reduced intermediate in the formation of phycobilins from biliverdin IX alpha. J Biol Chem 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)54577-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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35
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Terry M, Lagarias J. Holophytochrome assembly. Coupled assay for phytochromobilin synthase in organello. J Biol Chem 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)54556-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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36
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Beale S, Cornejo J. Biosynthesis of phycobilins. 3(Z)-phycoerythrobilin and 3(Z)-phycocyanobilin are intermediates in the formation of 3(E)-phycocyanobilin from biliverdin IX alpha. J Biol Chem 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(18)54576-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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37
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Abstract
Molecular models of phytochrome were generated to gain insight into structure-function relationships of this important, tetrapyrrole-containing plant protein. Molecular dynamics simulation of a 51-amino acid segment surrounding the chromophore attachment site in oat phytochrome (Cys-321) generated a folded structure. Cys-321 was located within this structure in a beta-turn at the entrance of a distinct pocket. When attached to this amino acid, a semicircular conformation of the Pr chromophore easily fit within the pocket, with the sidechain carboxyl groups in association with Arg and Lys residues in the peptide backbone. Models of Z and E isomers at the C-4 or C-15 double bonds were generated to produce potential conformations of the Pfr chromophore. Comparison of predicted reactivity of the tetrapyrrole, deduced from the models, with that described in the extensive literature on phytochrome clearly indicated that isomerization at C-4 is consistent with experimental data. Isomerization at C-4 caused the chromphore to move partially out of the pocket and brought the sidechain carboxyl groups and ring D to the surface of the polypeptide. This change in orientation is compatible with the observed interaction of Pfr with metal ions, which possibly is a component in the physiological activity of this protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Gabriel
- Department of Biochemistry, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19140
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38
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Tomizawa K, Nayatani A, Furuya M. Phytochrome genes: studies using the tools of molecular biology and photomorphogenetic mutants. Photochem Photobiol 1990; 52:265-75. [PMID: 2204945 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1990.tb01784.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K Tomizawa
- Laboratory of Plant Biological Regulation, RIKEN Institute, Saitama, Japan
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39
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Kidd DG, Lagarias JC. Phytochrome from the green alga Mesotaenium caldariorum. Purification and preliminary characterization. J Biol Chem 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)39254-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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