Kinetics of β-tubulin exchange following translation

Synthesis of β-tubulin occurs within chromatoid body of round spermatids

mRNAs for proteins required in elongated spermatids are considered to be transcribed at an early stage and stored in cytoplasm, presumably in chromatoid body (CB), one type of nuage component (a unique structure that appears and disappears during spermatogenesis), because transcription of genes does not occur at late stages. In elongated spermatids, a large amount of tubulin molecules is required to form microtubules of manchette and flagellum. To investigate the possible role of CB in translation of tubulin mRNA, we performed immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopic localization studies of α- and β-tubulin in rat spermatogenic cells. β-tubulin was detected in CB, but α-tubulin was not. Other nuage components present in pachytene spermatocytes (ISPG, IMC, SB) were negative for both α- and β-tubulin. Our findings suggest that: (i) β-tubulin in round spermatids is translated within the CB, whereas α-tubulin is not; (ii) αβ-heterodimers are formed outside CB and incorporated into microtubules of manchette and flagellum.

Seminal role of deletion of amino acid residues in H1-S2 and S-loop regions in eukaryotic β-tubulin investigated from docking and dynamics perspective

Tubulin is the fundamental unit of microtubules. It is reported to effect different functions like cell division, chromosomal segregation, motility and intracellular transportation. α- and β-tubulin associate laterally and longitudinally to form protofilaments. Both the subunits are structurally identical to each other except for the deletions reported in H1-S2 and S loop regions in eukaryotic β-tubulin. These deletions mimic the ancestral tubulin protein named Latest Common FtsZ-Tubulin Ancestor (LCFTA) with a shorter S-loop region resulting in weak dimerization. However, in eukaryotic beta tubulin, the significance of this shorter region remains elusive till date. The main objective of this study was to model variants of beta tubulin (βmut1, βmut2 and βmut3) with inserts that lengthened the loop, and to compare them with the native α- and β-subunits to understand their biological significance. Further, one more mutant was modeled with the intention of understanding the counter effect of additional deletion of amino acid residues from both H1-S2 and S-loop regions; this mutant was designated as βmut4. Our study confirms that the insertion of amino acid residues considerably increases the protein-protein interactions in βmut1-βmut1, βmut2-βmut2 and βmut3-βmut3 compared to their native β-subunit. Similarly, the binding affinity of GTP also increases in βmut2 and βmut3 as compared to the wild type. However, these deletions result in decreased protein-protein and ligand interactions in wild beta tubulin and βmut4, as compared to βmut1, βmut2,and βmut3. Therefore, we conclude here that residual inserts in the H1-S2 and S loop sub segments bring about conformational changes in regions critically involved in lateral interactions and in the nucleotide binding site, thus altering the binding affinities between the dimers and the ligands. Regarding the biological importance of such deletions in wild beta tubulin, these deletions result in flexible M-loop leading to weak protein-protein interaction. This could be an adaptive feature playing a crucial role in protofilament dissociation during GTP hydrolysis, because of weak dimerization.

Pathway leading to correctly folded beta-tubulin

We describe the complete beta-tubulin folding pathway. Folding intermediates produced via ATP-dependent interaction with cytosolic chaperonin undergo a sequence of interactions with four proteins (cofactors A, D, E, and C). The postchaperonin steps in the reaction cascade do not depend on ATP or GTP hydrolysis, although GTP plays a structural role in tubulin folding. Cofactors A and D function by capturing and stabilizing beta-tubulin in a quasi-native conformation. Cofactor E binds to the cofactor D-beta-tubulin complex; interaction with cofactor C then causes the release of beta-tubulin polypeptides that are committed to the native state. Sequence analysis identifies yeast homologs of cofactors D (cin1) and E (pac2), characterized by mutations that affect microtubule function.

Identification of intrinsic dimer and overexpressed monomeric forms of gamma-tubulin in Sf9 cells infected with baculovirus containing the Chlamydomonas gamma-tubulin sequence

A new member of the tubulin superfamily, gamma-tubulin, is localized at microtubule-organizing centers (MTOCs) in a variety of organisms. Chlamydomonas cDNA coding for the full-length sequence of gamma-tubulin was expressed in insect ovarian Sf9 cells using the baculovirus expression system. Approximately half of the induced 52 kDa gamma-tubulin was recovered in the supernatant after centrifugation of Sf9 cell lysates at 18,000 g for 15 minutes. When the cell supernatant was analyzed by FPLC on a Superdex 200 sizing column, Chlamydomonas gamma-tubulin separated into two major peaks. The lagging peak contained a monomeric form of gamma-tubulin with a sedimentation coefficient of 2.5 S, which interacted with the Superdex column in a salt-dependent manner. The leading peak, with an apparent molecular mass of 900 kDa, corresponded to a molecular chaperonin complex, and TCP1 chaperonin released folded gamma-tubulin polypeptide from the complex in the presence of MgATP. The released gamma-tubulin monomers were capable of binding to microtubules in vitro and biochemical quantities of active monomers were further purified using a combination of size-exclusion and ion-exchange column chromatography. The endogenous Sf9 cell gamma-tubulin migrated faster than Chlamydomonas gamma-tubulin with an apparent molecular mass of 49 kDa on gels. Analyses on gel filtration and sucrose density gradient centrifugation showed that, while overexpressed Chlamydomonas gamma-tubulin was present in a monomeric form, endogenous gamma-tubulin from Sf9 and HeLa cells exists as a dimer. These results may suggest the possibility that gamma-tubulin could form a heterodimer with hitherto unknown molecule(s).

Incorporation of tubulin subunits into dimers requires GTP hydrolysis

A toroid multisubunit complex of 800–900 kDa has been implicated in assisting protein folding of at least two cytoplasmic proteins, actin and tubulin. This process is dependent on the presence of magnesium ions and ATP hydrolysis. In vitro translation of cDNAs encoding different alpha- and beta-tubulin isotypes also gives rise to the formation of complexes of about 300 kDa. These complexes have been functionally implicated in the incorporation of tubulin monomers within the tubulin heterodimer. This work shows that, in addition to ATP hydrolysis, the incorporation of newly synthesized tubulin subunits into functional heterodimers requires GTP hydrolysis in the presence of magnesium ions. A two-step process is suggested, a first ATP-dependent step in which the 900 kDa complexes are implicated in a similar way to the step taking place in actin folding, and a second GTP-dependent step in which the 300 kDa complexes are involved in the assembly of the heterodimer.

Site-directed mutagenesis of the GTP-binding domain of beta-tubulin

Tubulin binds guanine nucleotides with high affinity and specificity. GTP, an allosteric effector of microtubule assembly, requires Mg2+ for its interaction with beta-tubulin and binds as the MgGTP complex. In contrast, GDP binding does not require Mg2+. The structural basis for this difference is not understood but may be of fundamental importance for microtubule assembly. We investigated the interaction of beta-tubulin with guanine nucleotides using site-directed mutagenesis. Acidic amino acid residues have been shown to interact with nucleotide in numerous nucleotide-binding proteins. In this study, we mutated seven highly conserved aspartic acid residues and one highly conserved glutamic acid residue in the putative GTP-binding domain of beta-tubulin (N-terminal 300 amino acids) to asparagine and glutamine, respectively. The mutants were synthesized in vitro using rabbit reticulocyte lysates, and their affinities for nucleotide determined by an h.p.l.c.-based assay. Our results indicate that the mutations can be placed in six separate categories on the basis of their effects on nucleotide binding. These categories range from having no effect on nucleotide binding to a mutation that apparently abolishes nucleotide binding. One mutation at Asp224 reduced the affinity of beta-tubulin for GTP in the presence but not in the absence of Mg2+. The specific effect of this mutation on nucleotide binding is consistent with an interaction of this amino acid with the Mg2+ moiety of MgGTP. This residue is in a region sharing sequence homology with the putative Mg2+ site in myosin and other ATP-binding proteins. As a result, tubulin belongs to a distinct class of GTP-binding proteins which may be evolutionarily related to the ATP-binding proteins.

TCP1 complex is a molecular chaperone in tubulin biogenesis

A role in folding of newly translated proteins in the cytosol of eukaryotes has been proposed for t-complex polypeptide-1 (TCP1), although its molecular targets have not yet been identified. Tubulin is a major cytosolic protein whose assembly into microtubules is critical to many cellular processes. Although numerous studies have focused on the expression of tubulin, little is known about the processes whereby newly translated tubulin subunits acquire conformations that enable them to form alpha-beta-heterodimers. We examined the biogenesis of alpha- and beta-tubulin in rabbit reticulocyte lysate, and report here that newly translated tubulin subunits entered a 900K complex in a protease-sensitive conformation. Addition of Mg-ATP, but not nonhydrolysable analogues, released the tubulin subunits as assembly-competent protein with a conformation that was relatively protease-resistant. The 900K complex purified from reticulocyte lysate contained as its major constituent a 58K protein that cross-reacted with a monoclonal antiserum against mouse TCP1. We conclude that TCP1 functions as a cytosolic chaperone in the biogenesis of tubulin.

Tubulin dimer formation via the release of alpha- and beta-tubulin monomers from multimolecular complexes

The functional subunit of microtubules is a heterodimer consisting of alpha- and beta-tubulin. An understanding of tubulin dimerization has been hampered because it has not proved possible to purify native tubulin monomers. To study the process whereby tubulin dimers are formed, we made use of tubulins synthesized by in vitro transcription and translation. We present evidence that the in vitro synthesis of different mouse alpha-tubulin isotypes involves a multimolecular complex. The synthesis of mouse beta-tubulin isotypes also involves the formation of multimolecular complexes, though different isotypes behave somewhat differently from one another. The properties of in vitro synthesized alpha- and beta-tubulin multimolecular complexes strongly suggest that they are intermediates in the biosynthesis of tubulin monomers. Upon release, these monomers can exchange with pre-existing tubulin heterodimers.