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Abstract
AbstractBooster biocides are organic compounds that are added to antifouling copper-based paints to improve their efficacy. Due to their widespread use, they are common pollutants of marine ecosystems. Some of these compounds show acute and chronic toxic effects in non-targeted organisms at concentrations as low as ng L−1. The determination of these compounds is therefore important, and for some, which are prioritized in the EU water framework directive, a necessity. Because of their low concentrations and the matrix effect, these contaminants often require a suitable sample preparation step (extraction/pre-concentration) prior to chromatographic determination. The aim of the present article is to review extraction and chromatographic methodologies related to the determination of common booster biocides in marine samples published in the scientific literature. These methodologies include liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), solid phase extraction (SPE), solid phase microextraction (SPME), single drop microextraction (SDME), Soxhlet extraction, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) as extraction methods, and both gas and liquid chromatography as determination techniques.
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Sánchez-Rodríguez A, Sosa-Ferrera Z, Santana-del Pino A, Santana-Rodríguez JJ. Probabilistic risk assessment of common booster biocides in surface waters of the harbours of Gran Canaria (Spain). MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2011; 62:985-991. [PMID: 21396664 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.02.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2011] [Revised: 02/12/2011] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The presence of booster biocides in the aquatic environment has been associated with a risk to non-target species due to their proven toxicity. The aim of the present study was to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of common booster biocides in different harbours of the island of Gran Canaria (Spain) and evaluate, by means of a probabilistic risk assessment (PRA), the ecological risk posed by these compounds. With these objectives, a monitoring campaign was conducted between January 2008 and May 2009, collecting a total of 182 seawater samples. Four common booster biocides (TCMTB, diuron, Irgarol 1051 and dichlofluanid) were monitored. Diuron levels ranged between 2.3 and 203 ng/L and Irgarol 1051 between 2.4 and 146.5 ng/L. The ecological risk associated with these levels was always low, however, with probabilities of exceeding the 10th percentile of autotroph toxicity below 3.5%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvaro Sánchez-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Química, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
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Singer H, Jaus S, Hanke I, Lück A, Hollender J, Alder AC. Determination of biocides and pesticides by on-line solid phase extraction coupled with mass spectrometry and their behaviour in wastewater and surface water. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2010; 158:3054-3064. [PMID: 20663596 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2010.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Revised: 05/31/2010] [Accepted: 06/12/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This study focused on the input of hydrophilic biocides into the aquatic environment and on the efficiency of their removal in conventional wastewater treatment by a mass flux analysis. A fully automated method consisting of on-line solid phase extraction coupled to LC-ESI-MS/MS was developed and validated for the simultaneous trace determination of different biocidal compounds (1,2-benzisothiazoline-3-one (BIT), 3-Iodo-2-propynylbutyl-carbamate (IPBC), irgarol 1051 and 2-N-octyl-4-isothiazolinone (octhilinone, OIT), carbendazim, diazinon, diuron, isoproturon, mecoprop, terbutryn and terbutylazine) and pharmaceuticals (diclofenac and sulfamethoxazole) in wastewater and surface water. In the tertiary effluent, the highest average concentrations were determined for mecoprop (1010 ng/L) which was at comparable levels as the pharmaceuticals diclofenac (690 ng/L) and sulfamethoxazole (140 ng/L) but 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than the other biocidal compounds. Average eliminations for all compounds were usually below 50%. During rain events, increased residual amounts of biocidal contaminants are discharged to receiving surface waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heinz Singer
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Ueberlandstrasse 133, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Hyötyläinen T. Principles, developments and applications of on-line coupling of extraction with chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1153:14-28. [PMID: 17196971 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.11.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2006] [Revised: 11/21/2006] [Accepted: 11/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
On-line coupling of extraction and chromatographic separation allows the whole analysis to be performed in a closed system. On-line systems are particularly useful when the analytes are labile, the amount of sample is limited, or very high sensitivity is required. Many on-line systems have been developed both for liquid and for solid samples. This review discusses the different instruments that have been constructed and the factors that need to be considered in the coupling. Selected illustrative applications are described to illustrate the potential of the on-line systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuulia Hyötyläinen
- University of Helsinki, Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, P.O. Box 55, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
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Di Landa G, Ansanelli G, Ciccoli R, Cremisini C. Occurrence of antifouling paint booster biocides in selected harbors and marinas inside the Gulf of Napoli: a preliminary survey. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2006; 52:1541-6. [PMID: 16884742 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2006.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2006] [Accepted: 05/26/2006] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Di Landa
- PROT-CHIM, Environmental Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, ENEA, C. R. Portici, Via Vecchio Macello, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy.
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Carbery K, Owen R, Frickers T, Otero E, Readman J. Contamination of Caribbean coastal waters by the antifouling herbicide Irgarol 1051. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2006; 52:635-44. [PMID: 16325869 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2005.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2005] [Accepted: 10/12/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Irgarol 1051 is a s-triazine herbicide used in popular slime-resistant antifouling paints. It has been shown to be acutely toxic to corals, mangroves and sea grasses, inhibiting photosynthesis at low concentrations (>50 ng l(-1)). We present the first data describing the occurrence of Irgarol 1051 in coastal waters of the Northeastern Caribbean (Puerto Rico (PR) and the US Virgin Islands (USVI)). Low level contamination of coastal waters by Irgarol 1051 is reported, the herbicide being present in 85% of the 31 sites sampled. It was not detected in water from two oceanic reference sites. In general, Irgarol 1051was present at concentrations below 100 ng l(-1), although far higher concentrations were reported at three locations within Benner Bay, USVI (223-1,300 ng l(-1)). The known toxicity of Irgarol 1051 to corals and sea grasses and our findings of significant contamination of the Northeastern Caribbean marine environment by this herbicide underscore the importance of understanding, more fully, local and regional exposure of reef and sea grass habitats to Irgarol 1051 and, where necessary, implementing actions to ensure adequate protection of these important ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Carbery
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Isla Magueyes Laboratories, Lajas, 00667 PR, USA
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Determination of the antifouling booster biocides irgarol 1051 and diuron and their metabolites in seawater by high performance liquid chromatography–diode array detector. Anal Chim Acta 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2004.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Konstantinou IK, Albanis TA. Worldwide occurrence and effects of antifouling paint booster biocides in the aquatic environment: a review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2004; 30:235-48. [PMID: 14749112 DOI: 10.1016/s0160-4120(03)00176-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 362] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Organic booster biocides were recently introduced as alternatives to organotin compounds in antifouling products, after restrictions imposed on the use of tributyltin (TBT) in 1987. Replacement products are generally based on copper metal oxides and organic biocides. This ban has led to an increase in alternative coating products containing the above biocides. The most commonly used biocides in antifouling paints are: Irgarol 1051, diuron, Sea-nine 211, dichlofluanid, chlorothalonil, zinc pyrithione, TCMS (2,3,3,6-tetrachloro-4-methylsulfonyl) pyridine, TCMTB [2-(thiocyanomethylthio) benzothiazole], and zineb. Since 1993, several studies have demonstrated the presence of these biocides in European coastal environment as a result of their increased use. More recently, the presence of these biocides was also revealed in waters from Japan, United States, Singapore, Australia and Bermuda. This paper reviews the currently available data on the occurrence of these biocides in the aquatic environment. Some data dealing with the environmental fate, partitioning, behaviour and risk assessment of antifouling paint booster biocides are also reported in order to discuss the detected levels of contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- I K Konstantinou
- Laboratory of Environmental Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, 45110, Ioannina, Greece.
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Comparison of the performance of analytical methods based on solid-phase extraction and on solid-phase microextraction for the determination of antifouling booster biocides in natural waters. Chromatographia 2002. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02492478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Lambropoulou D, Sakkas V, Albanis T. Headspace solid phase microextraction for the analysis of the new antifouling agents Irgarol 1051 and Sea Nine 211 in natural waters. Anal Chim Acta 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(02)00600-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Lambropoulou DA, Sakkas VA, Albanis TA. Analysis of antifouling biocides Irgarol 1051 and Sea Nine 211 in environmental water samples using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2002; 952:215-27. [PMID: 12064533 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(02)00085-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This study develops a method for the analysis of biocides Irgarol 1051 and Sea Nine 211 in environmental water samples, using solid-phase microextraction (SPME). Their determination was carried out using gas chromatography with flame thermionic (FTD), electron-capture (ECD) and mass spectrometric detection. The main parameters affecting the SPME process such as adsorption-time profile, salt additives and memory effect were studied for five polymeric coatings commercially available for solid-phase microextraction: poly(dimethylsiloxane) (100 and 30 microm), polyacrylate, poly(dimethylsiloxane)-divinylbenzene (PDMS-DVB 65 microm) and Carbowax-divinylbenzene (65 microm). The method was developed using spiked natural waters such as tap, river, sea and lake water in a concentration range of 0.5-50 microg/l. All the tested fiber coatings have been evaluated with regard to sensitivity, linear range, precision and limits of detection. Typical RSD values (triplicate analysis) in the range of 3-10% were obtained depending on the fiber coating and the compound investigated. The recoveries of biocides were in relatively high levels 60-118% and the calibration curves were reproducible and linear (R2>0.990) for both analytes. The SPME partition coefficients (Kf) of both compounds were also calculated experimentally in the proposed conditions for all fibers using direct sampling. Finally the influence of organic matter such as humic acids on extraction efficiency was studied, affecting mostly Sea Nine 211 uptake by the fiber. Optimum analytical SPME performance was achieved using the PDMS-DVB 65 microm fiber coating in ECD and FTD systems for Sea Nine 211 and Irgarol 1051, respectively.
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Sakkas VA, Konstantinou LK, Albanis TA. Photodegradation study of the antifouling booster biocide dichlofluanid in aqueous media by gas chromatographic techniques. J Chromatogr A 2001; 930:135-44. [PMID: 11681571 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)01193-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The aquatic photochemical behavior of the biocide dichlofluanid has been studied under natural sunlight conditions as well as under artificial solar irradiation in different types of natural waters (sea, river and lake water) as well as in distilled water. In order to examine the effect of dissolved organic matter (DOM), the photodegradation of the tested biocide was investigated also in the presence of various concentrations of humic and fulvic acids. It was found that the photodegradation proceeds via first-order reaction in all cases and that the presence of various concentrations of DOM inhibits the photolysis reaction. Kinetic experiments are monitored with GC-ECD with half-lives varied between 8 and 83 h. The major photodecomposition products identified by GC-MS were dichlorofluoromethane, aniline, and DMSA. Based on this byproduct identification a possible degradation pathway is proposed for the photolysis of dichlofluanid in aqueous media.
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Affiliation(s)
- V A Sakkas
- Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, Greece
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Affiliation(s)
- S D Richardson
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, US Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA
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Gimeno RA, Aguilar C, Marcé RM, Borrull F. Monitoring of antifouling agents in water samples by on-line solid-phase extraction–liquid chromatography–atmospheric pressure chemical ionization mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2001; 915:139-47. [PMID: 11358242 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)00619-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
An automatic method for determining diuron, irgarol 1051, folpet and dichlofluanid in seawater samples have been developed. This method is based on the on-line coupling of solid-phase extraction (SPE) with a highly crosslinked polymeric sorbent, LiChrolut EN, to liquid chromatography followed by atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) and mass spectrometry. The operational parameters affecting the APCI interface have been studied in both positive and negative ionization modes. The use of LiChrolut EN in the SPE produced recoveries of over 85% for all the compounds when 100 ml of seawater sample was preconcentrated. Calibration was carried out in both ionization modes and in full-scan and selected-ion monitoring (SIM). The method allowed all the analytes to be detected at 5 ng l(-1) in SIM acquisition mode except folpet, which, because of its low response, could only be detected at 250 ng l(-1). The method was used to analyse water samples taken from five different marina and fishing ports along the coast of Tarragona, Catalonia (Spain), over a 5-month period. Diuron and irgarol 1051 were detected and quantified in most samples at concentration levels ranging from 27 to 420 ng l(-1) for diuron and from 15 to 511 ng l(-1) for irgarol 1051.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Gimeno
- Departament de Química Analítica i Química Orgànica, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
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Current awareness. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2000; 35:1363-1374. [PMID: 11114097 DOI: 10.1002/1096-9888(200011)35:11<1363::aid-jms984>3.0.co;2-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
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