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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Herl
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Chemo- and BiosensorsUniversity of Regensburg Universitätsstraße 31 93053 Regensburg Germany
| | - Frank‐Michael Matysik
- Institute of Analytical Chemistry, Chemo- and BiosensorsUniversity of Regensburg Universitätsstraße 31 93053 Regensburg Germany
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Portychová L, Schug KA. Instrumentation and applications of electrochemistry coupled to mass spectrometry for studying xenobiotic metabolism: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2017; 993:1-21. [PMID: 29078951 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.08.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Revised: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/26/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The knowledge of metabolic pathways and biotransformation of xenobiotics, artificial substances foreign to the entire biological system, is crucial for elucidation of degradation routes of potentially toxic substances. Nowadays, there are many methods to simulate xenobiotic metabolism in the human body in vitro. In this review, the metabolism of various substances in the human body is described, followed by a summary of methods used for prediction of metabolic pathways and biotransformation. Above all, focus is placed on the coupling of electrochemistry to mass spectrometry, which is still a relatively new technique. This promising tool can mimic both oxidative phase I and conjugative phase II metabolism. Different experimental arrangements, with or without a separation step, and various applications of this technique are illustrated and critically reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenka Portychová
- Research Institute for Organic Synthesis, Inc., 533 54 Rybitví, Czech Republic; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Palacký University, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Kevin A Schug
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019, USA.
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Liu W, Shiue YL, Lin YR, Lin HYH, Liang SS. A Derivative Method with Free Radical Oxidation to Predict Resveratrol Metabolites by Tandem Mass Spectrometry. CURR ANAL CHEM 2015; 11:300-306. [PMID: 27594817 PMCID: PMC5003074 DOI: 10.2174/1573411011666150515233817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Revised: 05/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we demonstrated an oxidative method with free radical to generate 3,5,4′-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene (trans-resveratrol) metabolites and detect sequentially by an autosampler coupling with liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometer (LC-ESI–MS/MS). In this oxidative method, the free radical initiator, ammonium persulfate (APS), was placed in a sample bottle containing resveratrol to produce oxidative derivatives, and the reaction progress was tracked by autosampler sequencing. Resveratrol, a natural product with purported cancer preventative qualities, produces metabolites including dihydroresveratrol, 3,4′-dihydroxy-trans-stilbene, lunularin, resveratrol monosulfate, and dihydroresveratrol monosulfate by free radical oxidation. Using APS free radical, the concentrations of resveratrol derivatives differ as a function of time. Besides simple, convenient and time- and labor saving, the advantages of free radical oxidative method of its in situ generation of oxidative derivatives followed by LC-ESI–MS/MS can be utilized to evaluate different metabolites in various conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wangta Liu
- Department of Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung,Taiwan
| | - Yow-Ling Shiue
- Institute of
Biomedical Science, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung,Taiwan
| | - Yi-Reng Lin
- Department of Biotechnology, Fooyin University, Kaohsiung,Taiwan
| | - Hugo You-Hsien Lin
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung,Taiwan;; Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; 6Department of
Internal Medicine, Kaohsiung Municipal Ta-Tung Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan; 7Center for Resources, Research and Development, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung,Taiwan
| | - Shih-Shin Liang
- Department of Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung,Taiwan;; Institute of
Biomedical Science, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung,Taiwan
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Faber H, Vogel M, Karst U. Electrochemistry/mass spectrometry as a tool in metabolism studies—A review. Anal Chim Acta 2014; 834:9-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2014] [Revised: 04/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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6
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Online monitoring oxidative products and metabolites of nicotine by free radicals generation with Fenton reaction in tandem mass spectrometry. ScientificWorldJournal 2013; 2013:189162. [PMID: 23983622 PMCID: PMC3745948 DOI: 10.1155/2013/189162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In general, over 70% absorbed nicotine is metabolized to cotinine and trans-3′-hydroxycotinine by cytochrome oxidase P450, and nicotine is also a major addictive and the psychoactive component in cigarettes. As a xenobiotic metabolism, hydrophobic compounds are usually converted into more hydrophilic products through enzyme systems such as cytochrome oxidase P450, sulfotransferases, and UDP-glucuronosyltransferases to deliver drug metabolites out of the cell during the drug metabolic process. In this study, an electrodeless electrochemical oxidation (EEO) reaction via Fenton reaction by producing free radical to react with nicotine to immediately monitor the oxidative products and metabolic derivatives of nicotine by tandem mass spectrometer (MS) is done. Fenton reaction generates free radicals via ferrous ion (Fe2+) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to oxidize DNA and to degrade proteins in cells. In the EEO method, the oxidative products of nicotine including cotinine, cotinine-N-oxide, trans-3′-hydroxycotinine, nornicotine, norcotinine, 4-oxo-4-(3-pyridyl)-butanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-4-(3-pyridyl)-butanoic acid, and nicotine-N′-oxide were detected by tandem mass spectrometer to simulate the changes of nicotine and its derivatives in a time-dependent manner.
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A chip-type thin-layer electrochemical cell coupled with capillary electrophoresis for online separation of electrode reaction products. Anal Chim Acta 2013; 786:159-65. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2013.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2013] [Revised: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 05/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Jahn S, Karst U. Electrochemistry coupled to (liquid chromatography/) mass spectrometry—Current state and future perspectives. J Chromatogr A 2012; 1259:16-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2012.05.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Revised: 05/09/2012] [Accepted: 05/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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9
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Investigation of the biotransformation pathway of verapamil using electrochemistry/liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry – A comparative study with liver cell microsomes. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:9210-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.10.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2011] [Revised: 10/06/2011] [Accepted: 10/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Baumann A, Lohmann W, Schubert B, Oberacher H, Karst U. Metabolic studies of tetrazepam based on electrochemical simulation in comparison to in vivo and in vitro methods. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:3192-8. [PMID: 19233363 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2009.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2008] [Revised: 01/28/2009] [Accepted: 02/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
During the last 2 years, the knowledge on the metabolic pathway of tetrazepam, a muscle relaxant drug, was expanded by the fact that diazepam was identified as a degradation product of tetrazepam. The present study demonstrates that this metabolic conversion, recently discovered by in vivo studies, can also be predicted on the basis of a purely instrumental method, consisting of an electrochemical cell (EC) coupled to online liquid chromatography (LC) and mass spectrometry (MS). By implementing a new electrochemical cell type into the EC-LC-MS set-up and by an enhanced oxidation potential range up to 2V, one limitation of the electrochemical metabolism simulation, the hydroxylation of alkanes and alkenes, has been overcome. Instead of commonly used flow-through cell with a porous glassy carbon working electrode, a wall-jet cell with exchangeable electrode material was used for this study. Thereby, the entire metabolic pathway of tetrazepam, in particular including the hydroxylation of the tetrazepam cyclohexenyl moiety, was simulated. The electrochemical results were not only compared to microsomal incubations, but also to in vivo experiments, by analysing urine samples from a patient after tetrazepam delivery. For structure elucidation of the detected metabolites, MS/MS experiments were performed. The comparison of electrochemistry to in vitro as well as to in vivo experiments underlines the high potential of electrochemistry as a fast screening tool in the prediction of metabolic transformations in drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Baumann
- University of Münster, Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Münster, Germany
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Lohmann W, Dötzer R, Gütter G, Van Leeuwen SM, Karst U. On-line electrochemistry/liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry for the simulation of pesticide metabolism. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2009; 20:138-145. [PMID: 18842426 DOI: 10.1016/j.jasms.2008.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2008] [Revised: 09/01/2008] [Accepted: 09/01/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
On-line electrochemistry/liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (EC/LC/MS) was employed to mimic the oxidative metabolism of the fungicide boscalid. High-resolution mass spectrometry and MS/MS experiments were used to identify its electrochemical oxidation products. Furthermore, the introduction of a second electrochemical cell with reductive conditions provided important additional information on the oxidation products. With this equipment, hydroxylation, dehydrogenation, formation of a covalent ammonia adduct, and dimerization were detected after initial one-electron oxidation of boscalid to a radical cation. On-line reaction with glutathione yielded different isomeric covalent glutathione adducts. The results of the electrochemical oxidation are in good accordance with previously reported in vivo experiments, showing that EC/LC/MS is a useful tool for studying biotransformation reactions of various groups of xenobiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Lohmann
- Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Münster, Germany
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Aliabadi HM, Romanick M, Desai S, Lavasanifar A. Effect of buffer and antioxidant on stability of a mercaptopurine suspension. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2008; 65:441-7. [DOI: 10.2146/ajhp070325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sunil Desai
- Department of Pediatrics, Stollery Children’s Hospital, Edmonton
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Lohmann W, Karst U. Biomimetic modeling of oxidative drug metabolism. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 391:79-96. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1794-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2007] [Revised: 12/03/2007] [Accepted: 12/04/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Saitoh K, Naitoh S, Endo M, Washiya M, Shibukawa M. On-Line Electrochemical Redox Derivatization for Enhancement of Separation Selectivity of Liquid Chromatography. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2007. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.80.951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Tahara K, Yano Y, Kanagawa K, Abe Y, Yamada J, Iijima S, Mochizuki M, Nishikawa T. Successful Preparation of Metabolite of Troglitazone by In-Flow Electrochemical Reaction on Coulometric Electrode. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2007; 55:1207-12. [PMID: 17666846 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.55.1207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A simple, rapid and efficient system utilizing a coulometric electrode was developed for the preparation of drug metabolites. Trace amounts of reactants are usually generated in electrochemical reactions, which are not suitable for the sufficient preparation of products to obtain NMR and other spectral data for chemical structure confirmation or to obtain data from pharmacological activity screening tests of products. In the developed system, called the "in-flow electrochemical reaction system," a drug, troglitazone, was dissolved in a volatile flow solvent, and pumped into a coulometric electrode under optimized conditions, and the effluent was evaporated. Without any further purification, milligram amounts of a pure oxidation product of troglitazone could be obtained within several hours. The amount obtained was enough for (1)H- and (13)C-NMR analysis by which the structure could be confirmed and was found to be identical to one of the metabolites of troglitazone detected in human plasma. This system will be useful to prepare standard compounds of the required amount for pharmacokinetic study and for toxicokinetic study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayoko Tahara
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoritsu University of Pharmacy, Tokyo, Japan.
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Bökman CF, Zettersten C, Sjöberg PJR, Nyholm L. A Setup for the Coupling of a Thin-Layer Electrochemical Flow Cell to Electrospray Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2004; 76:2017-24. [PMID: 15053666 DOI: 10.1021/ac030388r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A novel setup for the coupling of a commercially available thin-layer cell to electrospray mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) which allows the electrochemical reactions at the counter electrode to be straightforwardly separated from the flow into the mass spectrometer has been developed. In this way, interferences from reaction products formed at the counter electrode can be minimized. This reduces the risk of changes in the mass spectra as a result of electrochemical reactions in the solution. The described setup also enables the working electrode to be positioned close to the electrospray (ESI) emitter without the need for a grounding point or a long transfer line between the electrochemical cell and the electrospray emitter. By decoupling the electrochemical reactions in the flow cell and those in the electrospray emitter, improved facilities for studies of electrochemical reactions are obtained through a better control of the potential of the working electrode. The setup has been used to study the oxidation of a drug (Olsalazine), which previously has been found to involve chemical follow-up reactions. It is also demonstrated that uncharged thiols can be detected in ESI-MS after spontaneous adsorption on a gold working electrode, followed by oxidative desorption to yield sulfinates or sulfonates. This adsorption and potential-controlled desorption has been used for the preconcentration of micromolar concentrations of 1-hexanethiol as well as for desalting of solutions containing micromolar concentrations of thiols. The results indicate that the present on-line coupling of an electrochemical cell to ESI-MS provides promising possibilities for sample preconcentration, matrix exchange (including desalting), and ionization of neutral compounds, such as thiols.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Fredrik Bökman
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Uppsala University, P.O. Box 599, SE-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
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Hayen H, Karst U. Strategies for the liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric analysis of non-polar compounds. J Chromatogr A 2003; 1000:549-65. [PMID: 12877188 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(03)00505-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Electrospray ionization and atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI) have evolved recently as very useful tools for the liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric (LC-MS) analysis of polar substances. Non-polar compounds, however, are difficult to analyze with these atmospheric pressure ionization techniques due to their soft ionization mechanism. Recently, new approaches have been introduced which are likely to overcome this obstacle, at least partly. On-line electrochemical conversion of the analytes to more polar reaction products, atmospheric pressure photoionization, atmospheric pressure electron capture negativeion-MS and coordination ionspray-MS are four techniques which are presented in detail compared and discussed critically with respect to their current status and future perspectives. Particular focus is directed from a chemical viewpoint on the substance groups which are accessible by each of the new approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heiko Hayen
- University of Twente, Department of Chemical Analysis, MESA Research Institute, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, Netherlands
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Deng H, Berkel GJV. A Thin-Layer Electrochemical Flow Cell Coupled On-Line with Electrospray-Mass Spectrometry for the Study of Biological Redox Reactions. ELECTROANAL 1999. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1521-4109(199908)11:12<857::aid-elan857>3.0.co;2-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Regino MCS, Brajter-Toth A. Real Time Characterization of Catalysis by On-Line Electrochemistry/Mass Spectrometry. Investigation of Quinone Electrocatalysis of Amine Oxidation. ELECTROANAL 1999. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1521-4109(199905)11:5<374::aid-elan374>3.0.co;2-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Steffenrud S, Maylin G. Thermospray liquid chromatography—mass spectrometry of corticosteroids. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/0378-4347(92)80243-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Bowers GD, Higton DM, Manchee GR, Oxford J, Saynor DA. Thermospray liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry for the characterisation of sulphate ester conjugates. J Chromatogr A 1991; 554:175-80. [PMID: 1839028 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(01)88447-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Formation of polar conjugates is a well documented metabolic pathway for xenobiotics containing phenolic hydroxyl groups. This paper describes the analysis of two sulphate ester conjugates by fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry and thermospray liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Thermospray liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry proved the more successful technique for obtaining the molecular weight of the intact conjugate, but only by removal of the buffer from the high-performance liquid chromatography eluent.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Bowers
- Department of Biochemical Pharmacology, Glaxo Group Research Limited, Hertfordshire, UK
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Zhu SM, Brajter-Toth A. Liquid chromatographic determination of 6-thiopurine metabolites formed in vitro in electrochemical and enzymatic oxidative activation. Anal Chim Acta 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(00)83933-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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