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Affiliation(s)
- Imran Ali
- Department of Chemistry, College of Sciences, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawarah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
- Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia (Central University), New Delhi, India
| | - Mohd. Suhail
- Department of Chemistry, Jamia Millia Islamia (Central University), New Delhi, India
| | - Hassan Y. Aboul-Enein
- Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt
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2
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Enzymatic synthesis of acyclic nucleoside thiophosphonate diphosphates: Effect of the α-phosphorus configuration on HIV-1 RT activity. Antiviral Res 2015; 117:122-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2015.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Revised: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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3
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4
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West C, Cieslikiewicz-Bouet M, Lewinski K, Gillaizeau I. Enantiomeric Separation of Original Heterocyclic Organophosphorus Compounds in Supercritical Fluid Chromatography. Chirality 2013; 25:230-7. [DOI: 10.1002/chir.22133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline West
- Institut de Chimie Organique et Analytique (ICOA); Université d'Orléans, UMR CNRS 7311; B.P. 6759, rue de Chartres 45067 Orléans Cedex 2 France
| | - Monika Cieslikiewicz-Bouet
- Institut de Chimie Organique et Analytique (ICOA); Université d'Orléans, UMR CNRS 7311; B.P. 6759, rue de Chartres 45067 Orléans Cedex 2 France
- Department of Organic Chemistry; Jagiellonian University; R. Ingardena 3 30060 Krakow Poland
| | - Krzysztof Lewinski
- Department of Organic Chemistry; Jagiellonian University; R. Ingardena 3 30060 Krakow Poland
| | - Isabelle Gillaizeau
- Institut de Chimie Organique et Analytique (ICOA); Université d'Orléans, UMR CNRS 7311; B.P. 6759, rue de Chartres 45067 Orléans Cedex 2 France
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5
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Gao X, Chen W, Zhu G, Yi R, Wu Z, Xu P, Zhao Y. Fast separation of antiviral nucleoside phosphoramidate and H-phosphonate diastereoisomers by reversed-phase liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:1416-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.01.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Revised: 01/12/2011] [Accepted: 01/17/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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6
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Sun J, Liu J, Tu W, Xu C. Separation and aquatic toxicity of enantiomers of the organophosphorus insecticide O-ethyl O-4-nitrophenyl phenylphosphonothioate (EPN). CHEMOSPHERE 2010; 81:1308-1313. [PMID: 20832841 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2010] [Revised: 08/13/2010] [Accepted: 08/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Enantioselectivity in separation and toxicity of chiral pesticides has become important research areas in environmental science, because these studies give a deeper insight into the environmental effect of chiral pesticides. In this study, enantiomeric separation of the organophosphorus pesticide and acaricide O-ethyl O-4-nitrophenyl phenylphosphonothioate (EPN) was investigated by chiral high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with two chiral stationary phases. The racemate and separated enantiomers of EPN were tested for aquatic toxicities assay using Daphnia magna and zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo test. The enantiomers of EPN were completely separated on Chiralpak AD and Chiralpak AS columns coupled with a circular dichroism detector at 236 nm. Better separations were achieved with lower temperatures (e.g., 20°C) and lower levels of polar modifiers (e.g., 1%). A significant difference was found between the enantiomers in their acute aquatic toxicity; the (+)-enantiomer was about 10 times more toxic than its antipode. On the contrary, the (-)-enantiomer induced crooked body, yolk sac edema and pericardial edema significantly more than (+)-enantiomer in the zebrafish embryo test. These results suggest that biological toxicity of chiral pesticides should be assessed by using their individual enantiomers with more comprehensive methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianqiang Sun
- Research Center of Green Chirality, College of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, People's Republic of China
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7
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Gao RY, Huang JM, Yang GS, Yang HZ, Wang QS. Direct chiral high performance liquid chromatography separation of O-ethyl O-phenyl N-isopropylphosphoroamidothioates. CHINESE J CHEM 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/cjoc.19990170113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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8
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Chirality of organophosphorus pesticides: Analysis and toxicity. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 878:1277-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2009.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2009] [Revised: 11/10/2009] [Accepted: 11/12/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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9
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Li L, Zhou S, Jin L, Zhang C, Liu W. Enantiomeric separation of organophosphorus pesticides by high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography and capillary electrophoresis and their applications to environmental fate and toxicity assays. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 878:1264-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2009.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2009] [Revised: 10/26/2009] [Accepted: 10/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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10
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Separation of diastereoisomers of Ara-C phosphotriesters using solid phase extraction and HPLC for the study of their decomposition kinetic in cell extracts. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2009; 877:3475-81. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2009.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2009] [Revised: 07/17/2009] [Accepted: 08/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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11
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Ying Z, Ling L, Kunde L, Xinping Z, Weiping L. Enantiomer separation of triazole fungicides by high-performance liquid chromatography. Chirality 2009; 21:421-7. [DOI: 10.1002/chir.20607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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12
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Comparison of HPLC and NMR characterization of the stereogenic properties of cyclotriphosphazene derivatives containing two equivalent centres of chirality: Cis (meso) and trans (racemic) isomers. INORG CHEM COMMUN 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.inoche.2006.09.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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13
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Li L, Zhou S, Zhao M, Zhang A, Peng H, Tan X, Lin C, He H. Separation and aquatic toxicity of enantiomers of 1-(substituted phenoxyacetoxy)alkylphosphonate herbicides. Chirality 2007; 20:130-8. [DOI: 10.1002/chir.20511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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14
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Beşli S, Davies DB, Kiliç A, Shaw RA, Sahin S, Uslu A, Yeşilot S. Comparison of high-performance liquid chromatography of cyclotriphosphazene derivatives with one or two equivalent stereogenic centres. J Chromatogr A 2006; 1132:201-5. [PMID: 16965786 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.07.094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2006] [Revised: 07/26/2006] [Accepted: 07/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
High-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) methods have been developed for investigating the stereogenic properties of two analogous series of dibenzylamino derivatives of cyclotriphosphazene containing either one or two equivalent stereogenic centres. Separation of the enantiomers of all the racemic compounds has been investigated by chiral HPLC using Whelk-01 and Chiralcel OD columns. In all cases, conditions for separation of enantiomers have been found using a Whelk-01 column with different ratios of tetrahydrofuran in n-hexane as the mobile phase. It is found that both the separation factor (alpha) and resolution factor (R(S)) of molecules with two equivalent stereogenic centres are greater than those for analogues with only one centre.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serap Beşli
- Department of Chemistry, Gebze Institute of Technology, Gebze 41400, Kocaeli, Turkey
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15
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Foulon C, Vaccher C, Villard AL, Puy JY, Lefebvre I, Perigaud C, Bonte JP, Goossens JF. Diastereoisomeric resolution of a pronucleotide using solid phase extraction and high performance liquid chromatography: Application to a stereoselective decomposition kinetic in cell extracts. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2006; 42:245-52. [PMID: 16806786 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2006.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2006] [Revised: 03/27/2006] [Accepted: 04/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A stereospecific HPLC methodology has been developed for the diastereoisomeric resolution of a mononucleotide prodrug in cell extracts. This method involves the use of solid phase extraction on a C18 cartridge. Diastereoisomers and internal standard resolutions were performed on a cellulose based chiral column (Chiralcel OD-H) used in the normal phase mode. The method was validated in terms of specificity, recovery, linearity (diasteroisomers mixture concentration: 3-60 micromol L(-1)), precision and accuracy and detection limit (1.67 and 1.33 micromol L(-1) for first and second eluted diastereoisomer). This method was applied to the determination of the apparent rate constants of disappearance and half-lives of each stereoisomers. This permits to conclude to the stereoselectivity of the enzymatic activity involved in the decomposition pathway of 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Foulon
- Laboratoire de Chimie Analytique, EA 4034, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, Université de LILLE 2, BP 83, 3 rue du Pr. Laguesse, 59006 Lille Cedex, France
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16
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Wong CS. Environmental fate processes and biochemical transformations of chiral emerging organic pollutants. Anal Bioanal Chem 2006; 386:544-58. [PMID: 16715266 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-006-0424-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2006] [Revised: 03/12/2006] [Accepted: 03/14/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
This review highlights the analytical chemistry, environmental occurrence, and environmental fate of individual stereoisomers of chiral emerging pollutants, which are modern current-use chemicals of growing environmental concern due to their presence in the environment and potential for deleterious effects. Comparatively little is known about individual stereoisomers of pollutants, which can have differential toxicological effects and can be tracers of biochemical weathering in the environment. Stereoisomers are resolved by gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and capillary electrophoresis (CE). Separation techniques in environmental analysis are typically coupled to mass spectrometry (MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), as these provide the sensitivity and selectivity needed. The enantiomer composition of phenoxyalkanoic and acetamide herbicides, organophosphorus and pyrethroid pesticides, chiral polychlorinated biphenyl metabolites, synthetic musks, hexabromocyclododecane, and pharmaceuticals in the environment show species-dependent enantioselectivity from biotransformation and other biologically mediated processes affecting enantiomers differentially. These enantiomer compositions are useful in detecting biologically mediated environmental reactions, apportioning sources of pollutants, and gaining insight into the biochemical fate of chiral pollutants in the environment, which are needed for accurate risk assessment of such chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles S Wong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, 11227 Saskatchewan Dr., Edmonton, AB T6G 2G2, Canada.
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Liu W, Lin K, Gan J. Separation and aquatic toxicity of enantiomers of the organophosphorus insecticide trichloronate. Chirality 2006; 18:713-6. [PMID: 16845672 DOI: 10.1002/chir.20323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Many of the organophosphorus pesticides (OPs) currently used are chiral and therefore consist of mixture of enantiomers. Despite the fact that the biological processes of chiral pesticides are enantioselective, the acute aquatic toxicity of chiral OPs with respect to enantioselectivity has so far received limited research. In this study, the enantiomeric separation and acute aquatic toxicity of trichloronate were investigated. Baseline enantioseparation of trichloronate was successfully achieved using high-performance liquid chromatography on a Chiralcel OJ column, with a mobile phase of n-hexane/n-heptane/ethanol (90/5/5, v/v/v) at the flow rate of 1.0 ml min(-1) and room temperature. The resolved enantiomers were characterized for their optical rotation and by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Significant differences were found between the enantiomers in acute aquatic toxicity to Ceriodaphnia dubia and Daphnia magna. The (-)-trichloronate was 8-11 times more toxic to the test organisms than its (+)-form, while the racemate showed intermediate toxicity. These results suggest that assessment of the environmental safety of chiral OPs should take stereospecificity into consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiping Liu
- Research Center of Green Chirality, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China.
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Zhou A, Lv X, Xie Y, Yan C, Gao R. Chromatographic evaluation of perphenylcarbamoylated β-cyclodextrin bonded stationary phase for micro-high performance liquid chromatography and pressurized capillary electrochromatography. Anal Chim Acta 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2005.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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19
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Shen B, Xu X, Zhang X, Chen J. Enantioseparation and Chiral Recognition Mechanism of Two Novel Organic Phosphonate Derivatives on Chiral Stationary Phases. ANAL LETT 2005. [DOI: 10.1081/al-200060973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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20
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Hewitt LM, Marvin CH. Analytical methods in environmental effects-directed investigations of effluents. Mutat Res 2005; 589:208-32. [PMID: 15878143 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2005.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2004] [Revised: 12/31/2004] [Accepted: 02/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Effluent discharges are released into aquatic environments as complex mixtures for which there is commonly either no knowledge of the toxic components or a lack of understanding of how known toxicants interact with other effluent components. Effects-directed investigations consist of chemical extraction and iterative fractionation steps directed by a biological endpoint that is designed to permit the identification or characterization of the chemical classes or compounds in a complex mixture responsible for the observed biological activity. Our review of the literature on effects-directed analyses of effluents for non-mutagenic as well as mutagenic endpoints showed that common extraction and concentration methods have been used. Since the mid-1980s, the methods have evolved from the use of XAD resins to C18 solid-phase extraction (SPE). Blue cotton, blue rayon, and blue chitin have been used specifically for investigations of mutagenic activity where polycyclic compounds were involved or suspected. After isolation, subsequent fractionations have been accomplished using SPE or a high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) system commonly fitted with a C18 reverse-phase column. Substances in active fractions are characterized by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and/or other spectrometric techniques for identification. LC-MS methods have been developed for difficult-to-analyze polar substances identified from effects-directed studies, but the potential for LC-MS to identify unknown polar compounds has yet to be fully realized. Salmonella-based assays (some miniaturized) have been coupled with fractionation methods for most studies aimed at identifying mutagenic fractions and chemical classes in mixtures. Effects-directed investigations of mutagens have focused mostly on drinking water and sewage, whereas extensive investigations of non-mutagenic effects have also included runoff, pesticides, and pulp mill effluents. The success of effects-directed investigations should be based on a realistic initial objective of each project. Identification of chemical classes associated with the measured biological endpoint is frequently achievable; however, confirmation of individual compounds is much more difficult and not always a necessary goal of effects-directed chemical analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Mark Hewitt
- Aquatic Ecosystem Protection Research Branch, National Water Research Institute, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ont., Canada L7R 4A6.
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Wang YS, Tai KT, Yen JH. Separation, bioactivity, and dissipation of enantiomers of the organophosphorus insecticide fenamiphos. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2004; 57:346-353. [PMID: 15041257 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2003.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2002] [Revised: 07/11/2003] [Accepted: 08/20/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Most chiral pesticides are used as racemates despite the fact that the pesticidal activity of the given pesticide is usually the result of the preferential reactivity of only one enantiomer while the other enantiomers may have toxic effects against other nontarget organisms. Accordingly, the enantiomer of fenamiphos, an organophosphorus pesticide, was separated by high-performance liquid chromatography with reverse phase and normal phase on a Pirkle model chiral stationary phase column. It was found that n-hexane/isopropanol (95/5) was the best solvent system for enantiomer resolution of fenamiphos. Chromatographic data including capacity factor (k'), separation factor (alpha), and resolution (Rs) are presented. Inhibitory activity to enzyme butyrylcholinesterase and toxicity to Daphnia of enantiomers and racemic insecticide fenamiphos were also studied. In the toxicity tests of Daphnia, the lethal concentration (LC50) of (+)-fenamiphos, (-)-fenamiphos, and racemate were 0.0016, 0.0061, and 0.0019 microg/mL, respectively. No significant difference of LC50 values between (+)-fenamiphos and racemate were found, but (-)-fenamiphos showed significantly lower toxicity to Daphnia. The inhibitory concentration (IC50) to the cholinesterase were 0.008, 0.15, and 0.46 microg/mL for (+)-fenamiphos, (-)-fenamiphos, and racemate, respectively. Both enantiomers and the racemate showed significant difference in inhibiting the cholinesterase. However, (+)-fenamiphos proved to be about 20 times more toxic to Daphnia and only about four times more inhibitory activity to butyrylcholinesterase than (-)-fenamiphos. The dissipation of (+)-fenamiphos, (-)-fenamiphos, and racemate in selected soils and natural water samples were also studied. The half-life (t(1/2)) of (+)-, (-)-, and racemate in soils showed no related to the soil texture, pH, or organic carbon content. By comparing the residues of (+)-, (-)-, and racemate in the water, it was found that (+)-fenamiphos was degraded faster than the others after 21 days. Briefly, (+)-fenamiphos is more toxic than (-)-fenamiphos to a nontarget organism (Daphnia), but the environmental persistence of the two compounds showed no significant difference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yei-Shung Wang
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, National Taiwan University, 1, Sec 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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Yen JH, Tsai CC, Wang YS. Separation and toxicity of enantiomers of organophosphorus insecticide leptophos. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2003; 55:236-242. [PMID: 12742374 DOI: 10.1016/s0147-6513(02)00066-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Enantiomers of leptophos were separated by high-performance liquid chromatography with a Whelk-O1 column using 3% dichloromethane in n-hexane as mobile phase. Toxicity tests of leptophos enantiomers and racemate were performed with daphnia. Enzyme inhibition of leptohpos was carried out by using butyryl cholinesterase from horse serum and acetylcholinesterase from housefly heads. From the inhibition test of butyrylcholinesterase, the half-inhibitory concentrations, IC(50), of (+)-leptophos, (-)-leptophos, and (+/-)-leptophos were 0.241, 1.17, and 1.05 gmL(-1), respectively. No significant difference in IC(50) in (-)-leptophos and (+/-)- leptophos was found. However, the IC(50) of (+)-leptophos was significantly different from those of the others. In the inhibition test of acetylcholinesterase, the IC(50) values of (+)-leptophos, (-)-leptophos, and (+/-)-leptophos were 14.01, 24.32, and 13.22 gmL(-1), respectively. There was no significant difference in IC(50) in (+)-leptophos and (+/-)-leptophos, although the IC(50) of (-)-leptophos was significantly different from those of the others. From these results, leptophos-both enantiomers and racemate-seems to have higher neurotoxicity for mammals than for the target insects. In the toxicity test of daphnia, the half-lethal concentrations, LC(50), of (+)-leptophos, (-)-leptophos, and (+/-)-leptophos were 0.0387, 0.802, and 0.0409 gL(-1), respectively. There is no significant difference in LC(50) in (+)-leptophos and (+/-)-leptophos. The LC(50) of (-)-leptophos is significantly higher than those of the others. From these results, (-)-leptophos has lower toxicity to daphnia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Hung Yen
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, National Taiwan University, 1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Road, Taipei 10617, Taiwan.
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Enantiomeric resolution of derivatives of α-aminophosphonic and α-aminophosphinic acids by high-performance liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoresis. J Chromatogr A 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(99)00487-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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