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Beloborodov SS, Schneider BB, Oleschuk RD, Yves Le Blanc JC. Open Port Interface for Coupling Capillary Electrophoresis and Mass Spectrometry: Performance Evaluation for Capillary Isoelectric Focusing. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2023; 34:2107-2116. [PMID: 37650584 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.3c00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Capillary electrophoresis (CE) combined with mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful analytical technique that utilizes the resolving power of CE and the mass-detection capabilities of MS. In many cases, CE is coupled to MS via a sheath-flow interface (SFI). This interface has a simple design and can be easily constructed; however, it often suffers from issues such as MS signal suppression, interference of MS and CE electrical circuits, and the inability to set an optical point of detection close to the capillary end due to the specific design of the coupling union. In this paper, we describe a novel coupling of CE and MS based upon the open port interface (OPI). The OPI differs from classical sheath flow interfaces by operating at flow rates at least 1 order of magnitude higher. In addition to the flow rate difference, the OPI provides more efficient mixing of the capillary eluates with the transport fluid and thus minimizes MS signal suppression. In this work, we compared the performance of OPI and SFI in a series of capillary isoelectric focusing (cIEF) experiments with 5 pI markers, carbonic anhydrase II and NIST antibody. The evaluation criteria for the comparison of the OPI and SFI were analytical sensitivity, reproducibility, and pI marker linearity. Given the extent of sample dilution in the OPI, we also compared the peak resolution determined using an upstream UV detector to those determined by the downstream mass spectrometer. The results suggested that the OPI configuration reduced signal suppression, with no adverse effect on peak resolution. In addition, the OPI provided better decoupling of the CE and MS potentials as well as reduced signal dependence upon the sheath liquid composition. While these results are preliminary, they suggest that the OPI is a viable approach for CE-MS coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Richard D Oleschuk
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, 90 Bader Lane, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada
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Yang J, Shin J, Kim H, Sim Y, Cha E, Yang J. Analysis of metabolite differences between South Korean and Chinese yellow goosefish (Lophius litulon) using capillary electrophoresis time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2023; 1228:123863. [PMID: 37639994 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2023.123863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
The yellow goosefish is a benthic fish that belongs to the family Lophiidae and order Lophiiformes and is distributed in the Yellow and East China Seas. This study aimed to distinguish between yellow goosefish from different geographical origins by analyzing their metabolites. Capillary electrophoresis time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to analyze metabolite profiles in the muscle tissues of yellow goosefish to distinguish between Korean and Chinese yellow goosefish. In total, 271 putative metabolites were extracted using 50% acetonitrile in water. Principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were used to distinguish different geographical origins using the metabolite profiles obtained. The R2 and Q2 values of the OPLS-DA model were 0.856 and 0.695, respectively, indicating that the model was well-fitted and had good predictability. The heat map revealed that nucleic acid and amino compounds differed between the Korean and Chinese fish, and the variable importance in the projection scores obtained from OPLS-DA showed that there were geographical differences in the primary metabolites (5'-methylthioadenosine, adenosine, uridine 5-diphosphate, guanosine 5-diphosphate, urea, homocarnosine, O-acetylcarnitine, cycloleucine, cycloleucine S-adenosylmethionine, S-adenosylhomocysteine, ethanolamine, myo-inositol 1-phosphate), which were identified as potential candidate biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junho Yang
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, South Korea.
| | - Jiyoung Shin
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, South Korea.
| | - Hyunsuk Kim
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, South Korea.
| | - Yikang Sim
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, South Korea.
| | - Eunji Cha
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, South Korea.
| | - Jiyoung Yang
- Department of Food Science & Technology, Pukyong National University, Busan 48513, South Korea.
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Analysis of metabolites of red seabream (Pagrus major) from different geographical origins by capillary electrophoresis time-of-flight mass spectrometry. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0270280. [PMID: 35862431 PMCID: PMC9302829 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0270280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Red seabream (Pagrus major), a migratory fish, is characterized by high protein levels in the muscle. South Korean and Japanese red seabreams have a general distribution pattern; however, distinguishing them based on their geographical origin is difficult. In this study, we used capillary electrophoresis time-of-flight mass spectrometry (CE-TOF/MS) to analyze the red seabream muscle metabolome to investigate how can distinguish the origin of the fish. The metabolites were extracted using 50% acetonitrile in water. Chromatographic separation was successfully used to classify the metabolite profiles of Japanese and South Korean red seabream. Principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis showed good ability to categorize the samples according to their origin. Amino acids showed the greatest quantitative difference in South Korean and Japanese muscle samples. Specifically, the L-alanine, L-glutamic acid, L-isoleucine, dimethylglycine, and L-valine levels in Japanese red seabream samples were significantly higher than those in South Korean samples. In contrast, the levels of trimethylamine N-oxide and inosine monophosphate in South Korean muscle samples were significantly higher than those in Japanese red muscle samples. The monitored metabolite profiles suggest that South Korean and Japanese red seabreams can be identified on the basis of amino acid levels.
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Staub A, Giraud S, Saugy M, Rudaz S, Veuthey JL, Schappler J. CE-ESI-TOF/MS for human growth hormone analysis. Electrophoresis 2010; 31:388-95. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.200900315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Staub A, Schappler J, Rudaz S, Veuthey JL. CE-TOF/MS: Fundamental concepts, instrumental considerations and applications. Electrophoresis 2009; 30:1610-23. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.200800782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Axén J, Axelsson BO, Jörntén-Karlsson M, Petersson P, Sjöberg PJR. An investigation of peak-broadening effects arising when combining CE with MS. Electrophoresis 2007; 28:3207-13. [PMID: 17854122 DOI: 10.1002/elps.200700158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
In this study, peak-broadening effects caused by nebulizing gas flow and lack of temperature control have been investigated for separation capillaries with three different inner diameters. The study was performed with serial UV/ESI-MS detection in an effort to distinguish between peak broadening arising in the separation and peak broadening arising in the ion source. The nebulizing gas was found to significantly affect both migration time and separation efficiency when using capillaries with 50 and 75 microm id. If the nebulizing gas is on during injection, the injection volume increases to such an extent that significant peak broadening is induced. Reducing the id to 25 microm minimizes the parabolic flow induced by the nebulizing gas. Results indicate that the nebulizing gas pressure can be optimized to minimize peak broadening in the ion source. A decrease in detection sensitivity, possibly related to the orthogonal design of the interface, was observed when the nebulizing gas pressure was increased. A tapered capillary tip was found to provide superior separation efficiency as well as sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Axén
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Zheng Y, Li H, Guo Z, Lin JM, Cai Z. Chip-based CE coupled to a quadrupole TOF mass spectrometer for the analysis of a glycopeptide. Electrophoresis 2007; 28:1305-11. [PMID: 17377943 DOI: 10.1002/elps.200600527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A novel approach using sheath flow chip-based CE coupled to a quadrupole TOF mass spectrometer was developed and applied to the analysis of an O-glycopeptide. The method provided good separation and sensitive analysis of the glycopeptide and its beta-elimination product. The beta-elimination reaction of the glycopeptide with ammonia or dimethylamine was adapted for changing the glycopeptide into deglycosylated form and for specifying the site of glycosylation. MS/MS analysis of the native peptide, glycopeptide and beta-elimination product enabled the identification of the glycosylation site through the comparison of the fragmentations and peptide sequence analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufang Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, P. R. China
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Balcerzak M. An overview of analytical applications of time of flight-mass spectrometric (TOF-MS) analyzers and an inductively coupled plasma-TOF-MS technique. ANAL SCI 2003; 19:979-89. [PMID: 12880079 DOI: 10.2116/analsci.19.979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A brief overview of the applications of time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS) for analytical purposes is presented. The performance of TOF-MS combined with an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) ion source is discussed in detail. The advantages of TOF-MS detectors over the quadrupole mass filters for multi-elemental analysis of fast transient signals are discussed. The applications of ICP-TOF-MS for the detection of signals from laser ablation, electrothermal vaporization, gas and liquid chromatography, capillary electrophoresis and flow-injection analysis are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Balcerzak
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland.
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Peterson ZD, Bowerbank CR, Collins DC, Graves SW, Lee ML. Advantages and limitations of coupling isotachophoresis and comprehensive isotachophoresis-capillary electrophoresis to time-of-flight mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2003; 992:169-79. [PMID: 12735473 DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(03)00235-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Capillary isotachophoresis (ITP) and comprehensive isotachophoresis-capillary electrophoresis (ITP-CE) were successfully coupled to electrospray ionization (ESI) orthogonal acceleration time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS) using angiotensin peptides as model analytes. The utility of ITP-TOF-MS and ITP-CE-TOF-MS for the analysis of samples containing analyte amounts sufficient to form flat-top ITP zones (30 microM) as well as for samples with trace analyte amounts (0.3 microM) was studied. Separations were performed in 150 microm internal diameter (I.D.) capillaries for the ITP experiments, and in 200 microm I.D. (ITP) and 50 microm I.D. (CE) capillaries for ITP-CE experiments. The fused-silica columns were coated with poly(vinyl alcohol) to suppress electroosmotic flow that can disrupt ITP zone profiles. The sample loading capacity in both ITP and comprehensive ITP-CE was greatly enhanced (up to 10 microl) compared with typical nanoliter-sized injection volumes in CE. It was concluded that ITP-TOF-MS alone was adequate for the separation and detection of high concentration samples. The outcome was different at lower analyte concentrations where mixed zones or very sharp peaks formed. With formation of mixed zones, ion suppression and discrimination could occur, complicating quantitative determination of the analytes. This problem was effectively overcome by inserting a CE capillary between the ITP and TOF-MS. In such an arrangement, samples were preconcentrated in the high load WTP capillary and then injected into a CE capillary where they were separated into non-overlapping peaks prior to their detection by TOF-MS. The advantage of this comprehensive arrangement, which we have described previously, is that there is no need to discard portions of the sample in order to avoid overloading of the CE capillary. The whole sample is analyzed by multiple injections from ITP to CE. Thus, this method can be used for the analysis of complex samples with wide ranges of component concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zlatuse D Peterson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, C267 Benson Science Building, PO Box 25700, Provo, UT 84602-5700, USA
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Hille JM, Freed AL, Wätzig H. Possibilities to improve automation, speed and precision of proteome analysis: a comparison of two-dimensional electrophoresis and alternatives. Electrophoresis 2001; 22:4035-52. [PMID: 11824628 DOI: 10.1002/1522-2683(200111)22:19<4035::aid-elps4035>3.0.co;2-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Proteome analysis requires fast methods with high separation efficiencies in order to screen the various cell and tissue types for their proteome expression and monitor the effect of environmental conditions and time on this expression. The established two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) is by far too slow for a consequential screening. Moreover, it is not precise enough to observe changes in protein concentrations. There are various approaches that promise faster, automated proteome analysis. This article concentrates on capillary (CT isoelectric focusing coupled to mass spectrometry (CIEF-MSn) and preparative IEF followed by size-exclusion chromatography, hyphenated with MS (PIEF-SEC-MS). These two approaches provide a similar separation pattern as the established 2-DE technique and therefore allow for the continued use of data based on this traditional approach. Their performances have been discussed and compared to 2-DE, evaluating 169 recent articles. Data on analysis time, automation, the detection limit, quantitation, peak capacity, mass and pI accuracy, as well as on the required sample amount are compared in a table.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Hille
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Braunschweig, Germany
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Waterval JC, Bestebreurtje P, Lingeman H, Versluis C, Heck AJ, Bult A, Underberg WJ. Robust and cost-effective capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry interfaces suitable for combination with on-line analyte preconcentration. Electrophoresis 2001; 22:2701-8. [PMID: 11545395 DOI: 10.1002/1522-2683(200108)22:13<2701::aid-elps2701>3.0.co;2-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes several successful cost-effective attempts to couple capillary electrophoresis (CE) and mass spectrometry (MS) without make-up flow or nebulizing gas. An in-depth analysis of several interfaces using conductive spray tips was performed as well as an easy-to-prepare T-junction with direct electrode contact, the latter being the most robust interface. No coating is necessary and the spray voltage is applied through a gold wire positioned at the gap between the separation and spray capillaries. The T-junction interface is made by puncturing a small piece of transparent rubber. The on-line preconcentration CE-MS system allows immunoassay sensitivity, as is demonstrated by a calibration plot in the picomolar range for angiotensin II and gonadorelin. It also shows good reproducibility and has the ability of excellent automation. The secure electrical contact gives a constant spray quality, even with 100% aqueous separation buffers. The described setup has a wide applicability as is demonstrated by the analysis of larger peptides, such as insulin and cytochrome c. Detailed information is given on critical factors in the preparation of the described interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Waterval
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Biomedical Analysis, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Collision-induced dissociation of ions within the orifice-skimmer region of an electrospray mass spectrometer. Anal Chem 2000; 72:791-9. [PMID: 10701264 DOI: 10.1021/ac990926t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
An equation was derived to describe the variation of the gas number density within the region between the orifice and the skimmer of an electrospray ionization mass spectrometer. The equation was used to develop a semi-quantitative model to predict the value of orifice voltages that lead to ion fragmentation within this region. This model made it possible to predict the types of solvent adducts observed for analytes at various orifice voltages. In addition, it is shown that a small number of high-energy collisions is equally effective for collision-induced dissociation as compared to a large number of low-energy collisions. Finally, this model is tested with different background electrolyte solutions and a different electrospray mass spectrometer. It is demonstrated that controlled fragmentation studies can be performed on single-quadrupole mass spectrometers, and the proposed model gives a reasonable description of the fragmentation process in both spectrometers.
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Collins DC, Tang Q, Wu N, Lee ML. Fast liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry using sol-gel bonded continuous-bed capillary columns. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1002/1520-667x(2000)12:8<442::aid-mcs2>3.0.co;2-q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Wu N, Collins DC, Lippert JA, Xiang Y, Lee ML. Ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry for fast separations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1002/1520-667x(2000)12:8<462::aid-mcs5>3.0.co;2-f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Hau J, Roberts M. Advantages of Pressurization in Capillary Electrophoresis/Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 1999. [DOI: 10.1021/ac9903050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Hau
- Nestlé Research Center, Nestec Ltd., Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Case postale 44, CH-1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
| | - Matthew Roberts
- Nestlé Research Center, Nestec Ltd., Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Case postale 44, CH-1000 Lausanne 26, Switzerland
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Lazar IM, Naisbitt G, Lee ML. Capillary electrophoresis time-of-flight mass spectrometry of an opium powder. Chromatographia 1999. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02490650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Lazar IM, Rockwood AL, Lee ED, Sin JCH, Lee ML. High-Speed TOFMS Detection for Capillary Electrophoresis. Anal Chem 1999; 71:2578-81. [PMID: 21662803 DOI: 10.1021/ac981249q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I. M. Lazar
- Sensar Corporation, 1662 West 820 North, Provo, Utah 84601, and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602
| | - A. L. Rockwood
- Sensar Corporation, 1662 West 820 North, Provo, Utah 84601, and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602
| | - E. D. Lee
- Sensar Corporation, 1662 West 820 North, Provo, Utah 84601, and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602
| | - J. C. H. Sin
- Sensar Corporation, 1662 West 820 North, Provo, Utah 84601, and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602
| | - M. L. Lee
- Sensar Corporation, 1662 West 820 North, Provo, Utah 84601, and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah 84602
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Lazar IM, Lee ED, Rockwood AL, Lee ML. General considerations for optimizing a capillary electrophoresis–electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry system. J Chromatogr A 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9673(98)00743-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Kok SJ, Velthorst NH, Gooijer C, Brinkman UA. Analyte identification in capillary electrophoretic separation techniques. Electrophoresis 1998; 19:2753-76. [PMID: 9870373 DOI: 10.1002/elps.1150191604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A review on applications of on-line hyphenation in capillary electrophoresis and capillary electrochromatography for the identification of migrating analytes is presented. There is an urgent need for unambiguous analyte identification by combining spectral information and observed migration times, because the parameters influencing the migration times and separation efficiencies in these separation techniques are not easily controlled, especially when real samples containing unknown interferences have to be analyzed. The spectrometric techniques covered here are ultraviolet and visible radiation (UV/Vis) absorption, fluorescence including fluorescence line-narrowing spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry. Attention is essentially confined to literature reports in which the extra information provided by the detector is really used for identification purposes, especially in real-life samples, while the interfacing as such and analyte detectabilities in standard solutions are only briefly discussed. This article covers an extensive fraction of the literature published on this topic until the beginning of 1998.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Kok
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of General and Analytical Chemistry, The Netherlands
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Abstract
This review summarizes the advancement in operational modes and selected applications of the title technique over the past five years. Regarding operational modes particular emphasis is put upon increasing selectivity and resolution, hyphenation of capillary electrophoresis with techniques based on other than electromigration principles, the so-called chip technology and new ways of detection. In applications selected examples of chiral separation and separation of biopolymers (proteins, nucleic acids) are emphasized. It is demonstrated that capillary electrophoresis represents a complementary technique to high-performance column chromatography and in a number of cases it offers better separations than standard chromatographic procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Deyl
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
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