Comparison of protein adsorption isotherms and uptake rates in preparative cation-exchange materials

Resin structure impacts two-component protein adsorption and separation in anion exchange chromatography

The influence of the resin structure, on the competitive binding and separation of a two-component protein mixture with anion exchange resins is evaluated using conalbumin and green fluorescent protein as a model system. Two macroporous resins, one with large open pores and one with smaller pores, are compared to a resin with grafted polymers. Investigations include measurements of single and two-component isotherms, batch uptake kinetics and two-component column breakthrough. On both macroporous resins, the weaker binding protein, conalbumin, is displaced by the stronger binding green fluorescent protein. For the large pore resin, this results in a pronounced overshoot and efficient separation by frontal chromatography. The polymer-grafted resin exhibits superior capacity and kinetics for one-component adsorption, but is unable to achieve separation due to strongly hindered counter-diffusion. Intermediate separation efficiency is obtained with the smaller pore resin. Confocal laser scanning microscopy provides a mechanistic explanation of the underlying intra-particle diffusional phenomena revealing whether unhindered counter-diffusion of the displaced protein can occur or not. This study demonstrates that the resin's intra-particle structure and its effects on diffusional transport are crucial for an efficient separation process. The novelty of this work lies in its comprehensive nature which includes examples of the three most commonly used resin structures: a small pore agarose matrix, a large-pore polymeric matrix, and a polymer grafted resin. Comparison of the protein adsorption properties of these materials provides valuable clues about advantages and disadvantages of each for anion exchange chromatography applications.

Influence of pH value and salts on the adsorption of lysozyme in mixed-mode chromatography

Mixed-mode chromatography (MMC) is an interesting technique for challenging protein separation processes which typically combines adsorption mechanisms of ion exchange (IEC) and hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC). Adsorption equilibria in MMC depend on multiple parameters but systematic studies on their influence are scarce. In the present work, the influence of the pH value and ionic strengths up to 3000 mM of four technically relevant salts (sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, ammonium chloride, and ammonium sulfate) on the lysozyme adsorption on the mixed-mode resin Toyopearl MX-Trp-650M was studied systematically at 25℃. Equilibrium adsorption isotherms at pH 5.0 and 6.0 were measured and compared to experimental data at pH 7.0 from previous work. For all pH values, an exponential decay of the lysozyme loading with increasing ionic strength was observed. The influence of the pH value was found to depend significantly on the ionic strength with the strongest influence at low ionic strengths where increasing pH values lead to decreasing lysozyme loadings. Furthermore, a mathematical model that describes the influence of salts and the pH value on the adsorption of lysozyme in MMC is presented. The model enables predicting adsorption isotherms of lysozyme on Toyopearl MX-Trp-650M for a broad range of technically relevant conditions.

Experimental investigation and mass transfer modelling of 3D printed monolithic cation exchangers

3D printing has recently found application in chromatography as a means to create ordered stationary phases with improved separation efficiency. Currently, 3D printed stationary phases are limited by the lack of 3D printing materials suitable for chromatographic applications, and require a strict compromise in terms of desired resolution, model size and the associated print time. Modelling of mass transfer in 3D printed monoliths is also fundamental to understand and further optimise separation performance of 3D printed stationary phases. In this work, a novel 3D printing material was formulated and employed to fabricate monolithic cation exchangers (CEXs) with carboxyl functionalities. CEXs were printed with ligand densities of 0.7, 1.4, 2.1 and 2.8 mmol/g and used in batch adsorption experiments with lysozyme as model protein. All CEXs demonstrated high binding strength towards lysozyme, with maximum binding capacities of up to 108 mg/mL. The experimental results were described using mass transfer models based on lumped pore diffusion and lumped solid diffusion mechanisms adapted to reflect the complex geometry of the 3D printed monoliths. An exact 3D model as well as less computationally demanding 1D and 2D approximations were evaluated in terms of their quality to capture the experimental trend of batch adsorption kinetic data. Overall, the model results indicate that mass transfer in the fabricated CEXs is mostly controlled by pore diffusion at high protein concentrations in the mobile phase, with solid diffusion becoming important at low protein concentrations. Also, the kinetic data were approximated equally well by both the full 3D model as well as the 2D approximation, indicating leaner mathematical models of lower dimensionality can be employed to describe mass transfer in complex three dimensional geometries. We believe this work will help spur the development of 3D printable materials for separations and aid in the development of quantitative platforms to evaluate and optimise the performance of 3D printed monoliths.

Influence of Salts on the Adsorption of Lysozyme on a Mixed-Mode Resin

Mixed-mode chromatography (MMC), which combines features of ion exchange chromatography (IEC) and hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC), is an interesting method for protein separation and purification. The design of MMC processes is challenging as adsorption equilibria are influenced by many parameters, including ionic strength and the presence of different salts in solution. Systematic studies on the influence of those parameters in MMC are rare. Therefore, in the present work, the influence of four salts, namely, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, ammonium chloride, and ammonium sulfate, on the adsorption of lysozyme on the mixed-mode resin Toyopearl MX-Trp-650M at pH 7.0 and 25°C was studied systematically in equilibrium adsorption experiments for ionic strengths between 0 mM and 3000 mM. For all salts, a noticeable adsorption strength was observed over the entire range of studied ionic strengths. An exponential decay of the loading of the resin with increasing ionic strength was found until approx. 1000 mM. For higher ionic strengths, the loading was found to be practically independent of the ionic strength. At constant ionic strength, the highest lysozyme loadings were observed for ammonium sulfate, the lowest for sodium chloride. A mathematical model was developed that correctly describes the influence of the ionic strength as well as the influence of the studied salts. The model is the first that enables the prediction of adsorption isotherms of proteins on mixed-mode resins in a wide range of technically interesting conditions, accounting for the influence of the ionic strength and four salts of practical relevance.

Performance of agarose and gigaporous chromatographic media as function of pore-to-adsorbate size ratio over wide span from ovalbumin to virus like particles

Two commercially available agarose ion exchange media, DEAE-Capto and DEAE-Sepharose FF (DEAE-FF), and two gigaporous media DEAE -AP-120 nm and DEAE-AP-280 nm were evaluated for their applicability in adsorption of five proteins with large span of radius ranges from 2.9 nm to 14.1 nm, which include ovalbumin, bovine serum albumin (BSA), haptoglobin, thyroglobulin and hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) virus like particle. The average pore radius of the four media was determined to be 6.9 nm, 18.5 nm, 59.4 nm and 139.3 nm, respectively, which was obtained by log normal distribution for DEAE-Capto and DEAE-FF and by bimodal Gaussian distribution for the two DEAE-AP media. The performance of these four media including phase ratio, static and dynamic binding capacity, and transport properties for the adsorption of these five model proteins as function of pore-to-adsorbate size ratio were investigated and compared. The best ratio of pore-to-adsorbate size was found dependent on the protein size. For protein with radius from 2.9 nm (ovalbumin) to 5.4 nm (BSA), the agarose media was superior to gigaporous media. Both the static and dynamic adsorption capacities reduced with the increase of pore size, and the highest values were obtained at the smallest pore-to-adsorbate size of about 2 times in this study, although the highest accessible surface area was obtained at pore-to-adsorbate size ratio about 16 to 20. For proteins with radius of 5.4 nm or larger than that, their adsorption capacities decreased firstly and then increased with the increase of ratio of pore-to-adsorbate size, and the highest values were obtained on the gigaporous media DEAE-AP-280 nm, which could provide faster diffusivity and larger accessible surface area. However, protein with radius of 14.1 nm (HBsAg) had much lower capacities compared to other proteins at the same pore-to-adsorbate size ratio, implying large protein needs greater pore-to-adsorbate size ratio to achieve a satisfactory capacity. For all the five tested proteins, the DEAE-Capto media having the smallest pore radius and branched dextran chains, was found superior to DEAE-FF in terms of both higher adsorption capacities and uptake kinetics, which suggested that the "chain delivery effect" took place on proteins over large size span from ovalbumin to HBsAg, though the effect on the larger proteins was much less significant than that on the smaller ones. Results from the present work provided more information on how do the relationships of pore size of chromatography media and adsorbate size interactively affect the chromatography behaviors, thus will provide general guidance for selection of suitable adsorbent for biologics of a given size.

A novel approach to calculate protein adsorption isotherms by molecular dynamics simulations

Protein adsorption plays a role in many fields, where in some it is desirable to maximize the amount adsorbed, in others it is important to avoid protein adsorption altogether. Therefore, theoretical methods are needed for a better understanding of the underlying processes and for the prediction of adsorption quantities. In this study, we present a proof-of-concept that the calculation of protein adsorption isotherms by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations is possible using the steric mass action (SMA) theory. Here we are investigating the adsorption of bovine/human serum albumin (BSA/HSA) and hemoglobin (bHb) on Q Sepharose FF. Protein adsorption isotherms were experimentally determined and modeled. Free energy profiles of protein adsorption were calculated by MD simulations to determine the Henry isotherms as a first step. Although each simulation contained only one protein, notably the calculated isotherms are in reasonably good agreement with the experimental isotherms. Hence, we could show that MD data can lead to protein adsorption data in good agreement with experimental data. The results were critically discussed and requirements for future applications are identified.

Enhancing Analytical Separations Using Super-Resolution Microscopy

Super-resolution microscopy is becoming an invaluable tool to investigate structure and dynamics driving protein interactions at interfaces. In this review, we highlight the applications of super-resolution microscopy for quantifying the physics and chemistry that occur between target proteins and stationary-phase supports during chromatographic separations. Our discussion concentrates on the newfound ability of super-resolved single-protein spectroscopy to inform theoretical parameters via quantification of adsorption-desorption dynamics, protein unfolding, and nanoconfined transport.

Confocal Raman Microscopy Investigation of Molecular Transport into Individual Chromatographic Silica Particles

Porous silica is used as a support in a variety of separation processes, including chromatographic separation and solid-phase extraction. The resolution and efficiency of these applications is significantly impacted by the kinetics of partitioning and molecular transport into the interior of the porous particles. Molecular transport in porous silica has been explored previously by measuring chromatographic elution profiles, but such measurements are limited to relatively low retention conditions, where within-particle molecular transport must be inferred from elution profiles of solutes emerging from a packed column. In this work, a measurement of within-particle molecular transport is carried out using confocal Raman microscopy to probe the time-dependent accumulation of pyrene from an aqueous mobile phase into the center of individual C₁₈-chromatographic particles. The measured time constants for pyrene accumulation were much slower than diffusion-limited transport of solute in solution to the particle surface. Furthermore, the accumulation into the center of the particle did not show a time-lag characteristic of slow-transport into the particle interior. The exponential rise of pyrene concentration is, however, consistent with first-order Langmuir adsorption kinetics at low surface coverages. The linear dependence of the time-constant on particle radius indicates an adsorption barrier near the outer boundary of the particle, where the accumulation rate depends on flux across the boundary (proportional to the particle area) to satisfy the within-particle capacity at equilibrium (proportional to the particle volume). The pyrene accumulation kinetics into the porous particle, expressed as a heterogeneous rate constant, were nearly 50-times faster than the pyrene adsorption rate at a planar C₁₈-functionalized silica surface, which demonstrates the impact of multiple surface encounters within the porous structure leading to much greater capture efficiency compared to a planar surface. Monte Carlo simulations of within-particle pyrene diffusion, with the adsorption efficiency estimated from the planar-surface adsorption rate, predict a diffusion-to-capture distance within the porous particle that is within 40% of that observed in the radial dependence of the pyrene within-particle accumulation results.

Protein adsorption in polyelectrolyte brush type cation-exchangers

Ion exchange chromatography materials functionalized with polyelectrolyte brushes (PEB) are becoming an integral part of many protein purification steps. Adsorption onto these materials is different than that onto traditional materials, due to the 3D partitioning of proteins into the polyelectrolyte brushes. Despite this mechanistic difference, many works have described the chromatographic behavior of proteins on polyelectrolyte brush type ion exchangers with much of the same methods as used for traditional materials. In this work, unconventional chromatographic behavior on polyelectrolyte brush type materials is observed for several proteins: the peaks shapes reveal first anti-Langmuirian and then Langmuirian types of interactions, with increasing injection volumes. An experimental and model based description of these materials is carried out in order to explain this behavior. The reason for this behavior is shown to be the 3D partitioning of proteins into the polyelectrolyte brushes: proteins that fully and readily utilize the 3D structure of the PEB phase during adsorption show this behavior, whereas those that do not show traditional ion exchange behavior.

Characterization of cross-linked cellulosic ion-exchange adsorbents: 2. Protein sorption and transport

Adsorption behavior in the HyperCel family of cellulosic ion-exchange materials (Pall Corporation) was characterized using methods to assess, quantitatively and qualitatively, the dynamics of protein uptake as well as static adsorption as a function of ionic strength and protein concentration using several model proteins. The three exchangers studied all presented relatively high adsorptive capacities under low ionic strength conditions, comparable to commercially available resins containing polymer functionalization aimed at increasing that particular characteristic. The strong cation- and anion-exchange moieties showed higher sensitivity to increasing salt concentrations, but protein affinity on the salt-tolerant STAR AX HyperCel exchanger remained strong at ionic strengths normally used in downstream processing to elute material fully during ion-exchange chromatography. Very high uptake rates were observed in both batch kinetics experiments and time-series confocal laser scanning microscopy, suggesting low intraparticle transport resistances relative to external film resistance, even at higher bulk protein concentrations where the opposite is typically observed. Electron microscopy imaging of protein adsorbed phases provided additional insight into particle structure that could not be resolved in previous work on the bare resins.

Protein adsorption to poly(ethylenimine)-modified Sepharose FF. IV. Dynamic adsorption and elution behaviors

We have previously investigated bovine serum albumin (BSA) uptake to poly(ethylenimine) (PEI)-grafted Sepharose FF. It was found that there was a critical ionic capacity (cIC; 600mmol/L) for BSA, above which the protein adsorption capacity and uptake kinetics increased drastically. In this work, two poly(ethylenimine) (PEI)-grafted resins with IC values of 271mmol/L (FF-PEI-L270) and 683mmol/L (FF-PEI-L680), which were below and above the cIC, respectively, were chosen to investigate the breakthrough and linear gradient elution (LGE) behaviors of BSA. Commercially available anion exchanger, Q Sepharose FF, was used for comparison. The DBC values of FF-PEI-L680 were much higher in the entire residence time range (2-10min) than the other two resins due to its high static adsorption capacity and uptake kinetics. At a residence time of 5.0min, the DBC of FF-PEI-L680 (104mg/mL) was about seven times that of FF-PEI-L270 and three times that of Q Sepharose FF. A rise-fall trend of the DBCs with increasing ionic strength (IS) was found for all the three resins studied, indicating the presence of electrostatic exclusion for protein uptake at low IS. With increasing NaCl concentration from 20 to 200mmol/L, FF-PEI-L680 kept very high DBC values (64-114mg/mL). In addition, FF-PEI-L270 showed more favorable adsorption properties than Q Sepharose FF at 100-300mmol/L NaCl. These results proved that the three-dimensional grafting ion exchange layer on the PEI resins enhanced their tolerance to IS. In the study of LGE, the three resins showed similar elution behaviors and no distinct peak tailings were observed. The salt concentrations at the elution peaks (IR) were in the order of FF-PEI-L680>FF-PEI-L270>Q Sepharose FF, indicating that the elution for the PEI resins needed higher salt concentrations, which was also an appearance of the salt-tolerant feature of the PEI resins. When protein loading amount was increased to the value equivalent to the DBC at 10% breakthrough, the adsorbed BSA could be eluted at lower salt concentrations. The chromatographic study has provided new insights into the practical application of the PEI-based anion exchangers.

Solid phase extraction of proteins from buffer solutions employing capillary-channeled polymer (C-CP) fibers as the stationary phase

Polypropylene (PP) capillary-channeled polymer (C-CP) fibers are applied for solid phase extraction (SPE) of proteins from aqueous buffer solutions using a micropipette tip-based format. A process was developed in which centrifugation is used as the moving force for solution passage in the loading/washing steps instead of the previously employed manual aspiration. The complete procedure requires ~15 minutes, with the number of samples run in parallel limited only by the capacity of the centrifuge. The method performance was evaluated based on adsorption and elution characteristics of several proteins (cytochrome c, lysozyme, myoglobin, and glucose oxidase) from 150 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solutions. Protein concentration ranges of ~2 to 100 μg mL(-1) were employed and the recovery characteristics determined through UV-Vis absorbance spectrophotometry for protein quantification. The protein loading capacities across the range of proteins was ~1.5 μg for the 5 mg fiber tips. Average recoveries from PBS were determined for each protein sample; cytochrome c ~86%, lysozyme ~80%, myoglobin ~86%, and glucose oxidase ~89%. Recoveries from more complex matrices, synthetic urine and synthetic saliva, were determined to be ~90%. A 10× dilution study for a fixed 1 μg protein application yielded 94 ± 3.2% recoveries. The C-CP tips provided significantly higher recoveries for myoglobin in a 150 mM PBS matrix in comparison to a commercially available protein SPE product, with the added advantages of low cost, rapid processing, and reusability.

High ionic strength narrows the population of sites participating in protein ion-exchange adsorption: a single-molecule study

The retention and elution of proteins in ion-exchange chromatography is routinely controlled by adjusting the mobile phase salt concentration. It has repeatedly been observed, as judged from adsorption isotherms, that the apparent heterogeneity of adsorption is lower at more-eluting, higher ionic strength. Here, we present an investigation into the mechanism of this phenomenon using a single-molecule, super-resolution imaging technique called motion-blur Points Accumulation for Imaging in Nanoscale Topography (mbPAINT). We observed that the number of functional adsorption sites was smaller at high ionic strength and that these sites had reduced desorption kinetic heterogeneity, and thus narrower predicted elution profiles, for the anion-exchange adsorption of α-lactalbumin on an agarose-supported, clustered-charge ligand stationary phase. Explanations for the narrowing of the functional population such as inter-protein interactions and protein or support structural changes were investigated through kinetic analysis, circular dichroism spectroscopy, and microscopy of agarose microbeads, respectively. The results suggest the reduction of heterogeneity is due to both electrostatic screening between the protein and ligand and tuning the steric availability within the agarose support. Overall, we have shown that single molecule spectroscopy can aid in understanding the influence of ionic strength on the population of functional adsorbent sites participating in the ion-exchange chromatographic separation of proteins.

Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching investigation of protein transport and exchange in chromatographic media

A fully-mechanistic understanding of protein transport and sorption in chromatographic materials has remained elusive despite the application of modern continuum and molecular observation techniques. While measuring overall uptake rates in proteins in chromatographic media is relatively straightforward, quantifying mechanistic contributions is much more challenging. Further, at equilibrium in fully-loaded particles, measuring rates of kinetic exchange and diffusion can be very challenging. As models of multicomponent separations rely on accurate depictions of protein displacement and elution, a straightforward method is desired to measure the mobility of bound protein in chromatographic media. We have adapted fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) methods to study transport and exchange of protein at equilibrium in a single particle. Further, we have developed a mathematical model to capture diffusion and desorption rates governing fluorescence recovery and investigate how these rates vary as a function of protein size, binding strength and media type. An emphasis is placed on explaining differences between polymer-modified and traditional media, which in the former case is characterized by rapid uptake, slow displacement and large elution pools, differences that have been postulated to result from steric and kinetic limitations. Finally, good qualitative agreement is achieved predicting flow confocal displacement profiles in polymer-modified materials, based solely on estimates of kinetic and diffusion parameters from FRAP observations.

Microcalorimetric study of the adsorption of PEGylated lysozyme and PEG on a mildly hydrophobic resin: influence of ammonium sulfate

Adsorption of native as well as mono-, di-, and tri-PEGylated lysozyme on Toyopearl PPG-600M, a mildly hydrophobic resin is studied by isothermal titration calorimetry and by independent adsorption equilibrium measurements in sodium phosphate buffer at pH 7.0 and 25 °C. For PEGylation two different PEG sizes are used (5 and 10 kDa) which leads to six different forms of PEGylated lysozyme all of which are systematically studied. Additionally, the adsorption of five pure PEGs is explored. The ammonium sulfate concentration is varied from 600 to 1200 mM. The molar enthalpy of adsorption Δh(p)(ads) is determined from the calorimetric and the adsorption equilibrium data. It is found to be endothermic in all experiments. The comparison of the adsorption of different PEGylated forms shows that the adsorption of PEGylated lysozyme is driven by the adsorption of the PEG chain. The results provide insight into the adsorption mechanisms of polymer-modified proteins on hydrophobic chromatographic resins.