The N-terminal domain of the regulatory subunit is sufficient for complete activation of acetohydroxyacid synthase III from Escherichia coli

Elucidating modes of activation and herbicide resistance by sequence assembly and molecular modelling of the Acetolactate synthase complex in sugarcane

Acetolactate synthase (ALS) catalyzes the first portion of the biosynthetic pathway leading to the generation of branched-chain amino acids. As such it is essential for plant health and is a major target for herbicides. ALS is a very poorly characterized molecule in sugarcane. The enzyme is activated and inhibited by a regulatory subunit (known as VAT1 in plants) whose mode of action is entirely unknown. Using Saccharum halepense as a template we have assembled the ALS gene of sugarcane (Saccharum hybrid) and have modelled the structure of ALS based on an Arabidopsis template (the first ALS model for a monocot). We have also assembled the ALS regulatory proteins (VAT1 and VAT2) from sugarcane and show that VAT2 is specific to true grasses. Employing a bacterial model, we have generated a structural model for VAT1, which explains why the separate domains of the proteins bind to either leucine or valine but not both. Using co-evolution studies we have determined molecular contacts by which we modelled the docking of VAT1 to ALS. In conclusion, we demonstrate how the binding of VAT1 to ALS activates ALS and show how VAT1 can also confer feedback inhibition to ALS. We validate our ALS model against biochemical data and employ this model to explain the function of a novel herbicide binding mutant in sugarcane.

The minimum activation peptide from ilvH can activate the catalytic subunit of AHAS from different species

Acetohydroxyacid synthases (AHASs), which catalyze the first step in the biosynthesis of branched-chain amino acids, are composed of a catalytic subunit (CSU) and a regulatory subunit (RSU). The CSU harbors the catalytic site, and the RSU is responsible for the activation and feedback regulation of the CSU. Previous results from Chipman and co-workers and our lab have shown that heterologous activation can be achieved among isozymes of Escherichia coli AHAS. It would be interesting to find the minimum peptide of ilvH (the RSU of E. coli AHAS III) that could activate other E. coli CSUs, or even those of ## species. In this paper, C-terminal, N-terminal, and C- and N-terminal truncation mutants of ilvH were constructed. The minimum peptide to activate ilvI (the CSU of E. coli AHAS III) was found to be ΔN 14-ΔC 89. Moreover, this peptide could not only activate its homologous ilvI and heterologous ilvB (CSU of E. coli AHAS I), but also heterologously activate the CSUs of AHAS from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Arabidopsis thaliana, and Nicotiana plumbaginifolia. However, this peptide totally lost its ability for feedback regulation by valine, thus suggesting different elements for enzymatic activation and feedback regulation. Additionally, the apparent dissociation constant (Kd ) of ΔN 14-ΔC 89 when binding CSUs of different species was found to be 9.3-66.5 μM by using microscale thermophoresis. The ability of this peptide to activate different CSUs does not correlate well with its binding ability (Kd ) to these CSUs, thus implying that key interactions by specific residues is more important than binding ability in promoting enzymatic reactions. The high sequence similarity of the peptide ΔN 14-ΔC 89 to RSUs across species hints that this peptide represents the minimum activation motif in RSU and that it regulates all AHASs.

Improvement of the redox balance increases L-valine production by Corynebacterium glutamicum under oxygen deprivation conditions

Production of L-valine under oxygen deprivation conditions by Corynebacterium glutamicum lacking the lactate dehydrogenase gene ldhA and overexpressing the L-valine biosynthesis genes ilvBNCDE was repressed. This was attributed to imbalanced cofactor production and consumption in the overall L-valine synthesis pathway: two moles of NADH was generated and two moles of NADPH was consumed per mole of L-valine produced from one mole of glucose. In order to solve this cofactor imbalance, the coenzyme requirement for L-valine synthesis was converted from NADPH to NADH via modification of acetohydroxy acid isomeroreductase encoded by ilvC and introduction of Lysinibacillus sphaericus leucine dehydrogenase in place of endogenous transaminase B, encoded by ilvE. The intracellular NADH/NAD(+) ratio significantly decreased, and glucose consumption and L-valine production drastically improved. Moreover, L-valine yield increased and succinate formation decreased concomitantly with the decreased intracellular redox state. These observations suggest that the intracellular NADH/NAD(+) ratio, i.e., reoxidation of NADH, is the primary rate-limiting factor for L-valine production under oxygen deprivation conditions. The L-valine productivity and yield were even better and by-products derived from pyruvate further decreased as a result of a feedback resistance-inducing mutation in the acetohydroxy acid synthase encoded by ilvBN. The resultant strain produced 1,470 mM L-valine after 24 h with a yield of 0.63 mol mol of glucose(-1), and the L-valine productivity reached 1,940 mM after 48 h.

1H, 13C, 15N assignments of the dimeric regulatory subunit (ilvN) of the E. coli AHAS I

Acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) is an enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of the branched chain amino acids viz, valine, leucine and isoleucine. The activity of this enzyme is regulated through feedback inhibition by the end products of the pathway. Here we report the backbone and side-chain assignments of ilvN, the 22 kDa dimeric regulatory subunit of E. coli AHAS isoenzyme I, in the valine bound form. Detailed analysis of the structure of ilvN and its interactions with the catalytic subunit of E. coli AHAS I will help in understanding the mechanism of activation and regulation of the branched chain amino acid biosynthesis.

Comparative analysis of phytohormone-responsive phosphoproteins in Arabidopsis thaliana using TiO2-phosphopeptide enrichment and mass accuracy precursor alignment

Protein phosphorylation/dephosphorylation is a central post-translational modification in plant hormone signaling, but little is known about its extent and function. Although pertinent protein kinases and phosphatases have been predicted and identified for a variety of hormone responses, classical biochemical approaches have so far revealed only a few candidate proteins and even fewer phosphorylation sites. Here we performed a global quantitative analysis of the Arabidopsis phosphoproteome in response to a time course of treatments with various plant hormones using phosphopeptide enrichment and subsequent mass accuracy precursor alignment (MAPA). The use of three time points, 1, 3 and 6 h, in combination with five phytohormone treatments, abscisic acid (ABA), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), gibberellic acid (GA), jasmonic acid (JA) and kinetin, resulted in 324,000 precursor ions from 54 LC-Orbitrap-MS analyses quantified and aligned in a data matrix with the dimension of 6000 x 54 using the ProtMax algorithm. To dissect the phytohormone responses, multivariate principal/independent components analysis was performed. In total, 152 phosphopeptides were identified as differentially regulated; these phosphopeptides are involved in a wide variety of signaling pathways. New phosphorylation sites were identified for ABA response element binding factors that showed a specific increase in response to ABA. New phosphorylation sites were also found for RLKs and auxin transporters. We found that different hormones regulate distinct amino acid residues of members of the same protein families. In contrast, tyrosine phosphorylation of the G alpha subunit appeared to be a common response for multiple hormones, demonstrating global cross-talk among hormone signaling pathways.

Subunit-subunit interactions are weakened in mutant forms of acetohydroxy acid synthase insensitive to valine inhibition

In acetohydroxy acid synthase from Streptomyces cinnamonensis mutants affected in valine regulation, the impact of mutations on interactions between the catalytic and the regulatory subunits was examined using yeast two-hybrid system. Mutations in the catalytic and the regulatory subunits were projected into homology models of the respective proteins. Two changes in the catalytic subunit, E139A (alpha domain) and DeltaQ217 (beta domain), both located on the surface of the catalytic subunit dimer, lowered the interaction with the regulatory subunit. Three consecutive changes in the N-terminal part of the regulatory subunit were examined. Changes G16D and V17D in a loop and adjacent alpha-helix of ACT domain affected the interaction considerably, indicating that this region might be in contact with the catalytic subunit during allosteric regulation. In contrast, the adjacent mutation L18F did not influence the interaction at all. Thus, L18 might participate in valine binding or conformational change transfer within the regulatory subunits. Shortening of the regulatory subunit to 107 residues reduced the interaction essentially, suggesting that the C-terminal part of the regulatory subunit is also important for the catalytic subunit binding.

Interactions between large and small subunits of different acetohydroxyacid synthase isozymes of Escherichia coli

The large, catalytic subunits (LSUs; ilvB, ilvG and ilvI, respectively) of enterobacterial acetohydroxyacid synthases isozymes (AHAS I, II and III) have molecular weights approximately 60 kDa and are paralogous with a family of other thiamin diphosphate dependent enzymes. The small, regulatory subunits (SSUs) of AHAS I and AHAS III (ilvN and ilvH) are required for valine inhibition, but ilvN and ilvH can only confer valine sensitivity on their own LSUs. AHAS II is valine resistant. The LSUs have only approximately 15, <<1 and approximately 3%, respectively, of the activity of their respective holoenzymes, but the holoenzymes can be reconstituted with complete recovery of activity. We have examined the activation of each of the LSUs by SSUs from different isozymes and ask to what extent such activation is specific; that is, is effective nonspecific interaction possible between LSUs and SSUs of different isozymes? To our surprise, the AHAS II SSU ilvM is able to activate the LSUs of all three of the isozymes, and the truncated AHAS III SSUs ilvH-Delta80, ilvH-Delta86 and ilvH-Delta89 are able to activate the LSUs of both AHAS I and AHAS III. However, none of the heterologously activated enzymes have any feedback sensitivity. Our results imply the existence of a common region in all three LSUs to which regulatory subunits may bind, as well as a similarity between the surfaces of ilvM and the other SSUs. This surface must be included within the N-terminal betaalphabetabetaalphabeta-domain of the SSUs, probably on the helical face of this domain. We suggest hypotheses for the mechanism of valine inhibition, and reject one involving induced dissociation of subunits.

Acetohydroxyacid synthase, a novel target for improvement of L-lysine production by Corynebacterium glutamicum

The influence of acetohydroxy acid synthase (AHAS) on L-lysine production by Corynebacterium glutamicum was investigated. An AHAS with a deleted C-terminal domain in the regulatory subunit IlvN was engineered by truncating the ilvN gene. Compared to the wild-type AHAS, the newly constructed enzyme showed altered kinetic properties, i.e., (i) an about twofold-lower K(m) for the substrate pyruvate and an about fourfold-lower V(max); (ii) a slightly increased K(m) for the substrate alpha-ketobutyrate with an about twofold-lower V(max); and (iii) insensitivity against the inhibitors L-valine, L-isoleucine, and L-leucine (10 mM each). Introduction of the modified AHAS into the L-lysine producers C. glutamicum DM1729 and DM1933 increased L-lysine formation by 43% (30 mM versus 21 mM) and 36% (51 mM versus 37 mM), respectively, suggesting that decreased AHAS activity is linked to increased L-lysine formation. Complete inactivation of the AHAS in C. glutamicum DM1729 and DM1933 by deletion of the ilvB gene, encoding the catalytic subunit of AHAS, led to L-valine, L-isoleucine, and L-leucine auxotrophy and to further-improved L-lysine production. In batch fermentations, C. glutamicum DM1729 Delta ilvB produced about 85% more L-lysine (70 mM versus 38 mM) and showed an 85%-higher substrate-specific product yield (0.180 versus 0.098 mol C/mol C) than C. glutamicum DM1729. Comparative transcriptome analysis of C. glutamicum DM1729 and C. glutamicum DM1729 Delta ilvB indicated transcriptional differences for about 50 genes, although not for those encoding enzymes involved in the L-lysine biosynthetic pathway.

Escherichia coli ilvN interacts with the FAD binding domain of ilvB and activates the AHAS I enzyme

The unique multidomain organization in the multimeric Escherichia coli AHAS I (ilvBN) enzyme has been exploited to generate polypeptide fragments which, when cloned and expressed, reassemble in the presence of cofactors to yield a catalytically competent enzyme. Multidimensional multinuclear NMR methods have been employed for obtaining near complete sequence specific NMR assignments for backbone HN, 15N, 13Calpha and 13Cbeta atoms of the FAD binding domain of ilvB on samples that were isotopically enriched in 2H, 13C and 15N. Unambiguous assignments were obtained for 169 of 177 backbone Calpha atoms and 127 of 164 side chain Cbeta atoms. The secondary structure determined on the basis of observed 13Calpha secondary chemical shifts and sequential NOEs agrees well with the structure of this domain in the catalytic subunit of yeast AHAS. Binding of ilvN to the ilvBalpha and ilvBbeta domains was studied by both circular dichroism and isotope edited solution nuclear magnetic resonance methods. Changes in CD spectra indicate that ilvN interacts with ilvBalpha and ilvBbeta domains of the catalytic subunit and not with the ilvBgamma domain. NMR chemical shift mapping methods show that ilvN binds close to the FAD binding site in ilvBbeta and proximal to the intrasubunit ilvBalpha/ilvBbeta domain interface. The implication of this interaction on the role of the regulatory subunit on the activity of the holoenzyme is discussed.

Crystal structures of TM0549 and NE1324--two orthologs of E. coli AHAS isozyme III small regulatory subunit

Crystal structures of two orthologs of the regulatory subunit of acetohydroxyacid synthase III (AHAS, EC 2.2.1.6) from Thermotoga maritima (TM0549) and Nitrosomonas europea (NE1324) were determined by single-wavelength anomalous diffraction methods with the use of selenomethionine derivatives at 2.3 A and 2.5 A, respectively. TM0549 and NE1324 share the same fold, and in both proteins the polypeptide chain contains two separate domains of a similar size. Each protein contains a C-terminal domain with ferredoxin-type fold and an N-terminal ACT domain, of which the latter is characteristic for several proteins involved in amino acid metabolism. The ferredoxin domain is stabilized by a calcium ion in the crystal structure of NE1324 and by a Mg(H2O)(6)2+ ion in TM0549. Both TM0549 and NE1324 form dimeric assemblies in the crystal lattice.

Acetohydroxyacid synthase and its role in the biosynthetic pathway for branched-chain amino acids

The branched-chain amino acids are synthesized by plants, fungi and microorganisms, but not by animals. Therefore, the enzymes of this pathway are potential target sites for the development of antifungal agents, antimicrobials and herbicides. Most research has focused upon the first enzyme in this biosynthetic pathway, acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) largely because it is the target site for many commercial herbicides. In this review we provide a brief overview of the important properties of each enzyme within the pathway and a detailed summary of the most recent AHAS research, against the perspective of work that has been carried out over the past 50 years.

Construction of an active acetohydroxyacid synthase I with a flexible linker connecting the catalytic and the regulatory subunits

Acetohydroxyacid synthase I (AHAS I), one of three isozymes in Escherichia coli catalyzing the first common step in the biosynthesis of branched amino acids, is composed of two kinds of subunits. The large catalytic (B) and small regulatory (N) subunits of the holoenzyme dissociate and associate freely and rapidly and are quite different in size, charge and hydrophobicity, so that high resolution purification methods lead to partial separation of subunits and to heterogeneity. We have prepared several linked AHAS I proteins, in which the large subunit B with a hexahistidine-tag at the N-terminus, was covalently joined by a flexible linker, containing several (X) amino acids, to the small subunit N to form His6-BuXN polypeptides. All linked BuXN polypeptides have similar specific activity, sensitivity to valine and substrate specificity as the wild type holoenzyme. The most successful BuXN linked protein (Bu30N-r) was inserted into and expressed in yeast and its catalytic properties were tested.

Structure of the Regulatory Subunit of Acetohydroxyacid Synthase Isozyme III from Escherichia coli

The enzyme acetohydroxyacid synthase (AHAS) catalyses the first common step in the biosynthesis of the three branched-chain amino acids. Enzymes in the AHAS family generally consist of regulatory and catalytic subunits. Here, we describe the first crystal structure of an AHAS regulatory subunit, the ilvH polypeptide, determined at a resolution of 1.75 A. IlvH is the regulatory subunit of one of three AHAS isozymes expressed in Escherichia coli, AHAS III. The protein is a dimer, with two beta alpha beta beta alpha beta ferredoxin domains in each monomer. The two N-terminal domains assemble to form an ACT domain structure remarkably close to the one predicted by us on the basis of the regulatory domain of 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (3PGDH). The two C-terminal domains combine so that their beta-sheets are roughly positioned back-to-back and perpendicular to the extended beta-sheet of the N-terminal ACT domain. On the basis of the properties of mutants and a comparison with 3PGDH, the effector (valine) binding sites can be located tentatively in two symmetrically related positions in the interface between a pair of N-terminal domains. The properties of mutants of the ilvH polypeptide outside the putative effector-binding site provide further insight into the functioning of the holoenzyme. The results of this study open avenues for further studies aimed at understanding the mechanism of regulation of AHAS by small-molecule effectors.

Acetohydroxyacid synthase isozyme I from Escherichia coli has unique catalytic and regulatory properties

AHAS I is an isozyme of acetohydroxyacid synthase which is apparently unique to enterobacteria. It has been known for over 20 years that it has many properties which are quite different from those of the other two enterobacterial AHASs isozymes, as well as from those of "typical" AHASs which are single enzymes in a given organism. These include a unique mechanism for regulation of expression and the absence of a preference for forming acetohydroxybutyrate. We have cloned the two subunits, ilvB and ilvN, of this Escherichia coli isoenzyme and examined the enzymatic properties of the purified holoenzyme and the enzyme reconstituted from purified subunits. Unlike other AHASs, AHAS I demonstrates cooperative feedback inhibition by valine, and the kinetics fit closely to an exclusive binding model. The formation of acetolactate by AHAS I is readily reversible and acetolactate can act as substrate for alternative AHAS I-catalyzed reactions.

Mechanisms of acetohydroxyacid synthases

Acetohydroxyacid synthases are thiamin diphosphate- (ThDP-) dependent biosynthetic enzymes found in all autotrophic organisms. Over the past 4-5 years, their mechanisms have been clarified and illuminated by protein crystallography, engineered mutagenesis and detailed single-step kinetic analysis. Pairs of catalytic subunits form an intimate dimer containing two active sites, each of which lies across a dimer interface and involves both monomers. The ThDP adducts of pyruvate, acetaldehyde and the product acetohydroxyacids can be detected quantitatively after rapid quenching. Determination of the distribution of intermediates by NMR then makes it possible to calculate individual forward unimolecular rate constants. The enzyme is the target of several herbicides and structures of inhibitor-enzyme complexes explain the herbicide-enzyme interaction.