Triple helix formation by oligopurine-oligopyrimidine DNA fragments. Electrophoretic and thermodynamic behavior

Biophysical Investigation of RNA ⋅ DNA : DNA Triple Helix and RNA : DNA Heteroduplex Formation by the lncRNAs MEG3 and Fendrr

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are important regulators of gene expression and can associate with DNA as RNA : DNA heteroduplexes or RNA ⋅ DNA : DNA triple helix structures. Here, we review in vitro biochemical and biophysical experiments including electromobility shift assays (EMSA), circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, thermal melting analysis, microscale thermophoresis (MST), single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to investigate RNA ⋅ DNA : DNA triple helix and RNA : DNA heteroduplex formation. We present the investigations of the antiparallel triplex-forming lncRNA MEG3 targeting the gene TGFB2 and the parallel triplex-forming lncRNA Fendrr with its target gene Emp2. The thermodynamic properties of these oligonucleotides lead to concentration-dependent heterogeneous mixtures, where a DNA duplex, an RNA : DNA heteroduplex and an RNA ⋅ DNA : DNA triplex coexist and their relative populations are modulated in a temperature-dependent manner. The in vitro data provide a reliable readout of triplex structures, as RNA ⋅ DNA : DNA triplexes show distinct features compared to DNA duplexes and RNA : DNA heteroduplexes. Our experimental results can be used to validate computationally predicted triple helix formation between novel disease-relevant lncRNAs and their DNA target genes.

Effects of PNA Sequence and Target Site Selection on Function of a 4.5S Non-Coding RNA

Peptide nucleic acid (PNA) based antisense strategy is a promising therapeutic approach to specifically inhibit target gene expression. However, unlike protein coding genes, identification of an ideal PNA binding site for non-coding RNA is not straightforward. Here, we compare the inhibitory activities of PNA molecules that bind a non-coding 4.5S RNA called SRP RNA, a key component of the bacterial signal recognition particle (SRP). A 9-mer PNA (PNA9) complementary to the tetraloop region of the RNA was more potent in inhibiting its interaction with the SRP protein, compared to an 8-mer PNA (PNA8) targeting a stem-loop. PNA9, which contained a homo-pyrimidine sequence could form a triplex with the complementary stretch of RNA in vitro as confirmed using a fluorescent derivative of PNA9 (F-PNA13). The RNA-PNA complex formation resulted in inhibition of SRP function with PNA9 and F-PNA13, but not PNA8 highlighting the importance of target site selection. Surprisingly, F-PNA13 which was more potent in inhibiting SRP function in vitro, showed weaker antibacterial activity compared to PNA9 likely due to poor cell penetration of the longer PNA. Our results underscore the importance of suitable target site selection and optimum PNA length to develop better antisense molecules against non-coding RNA.

A label-free dually-amplified aptamer sensor for the specific detection of amyloid-beta peptide oligomers in cerebrospinal fluids

Amyloid-beta peptide oligomer (Aβo) is widely acknowledged to be associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD). The immediate and accurate detection of Aβo may provide the index for tracking the progress of the state of the disease, as well as some useful information for investigating the pathology of AD. In this work, based on a triple helix DNA which triggers a series of circular amplified reactions in the presence of Aβo, we designed a simple and label-free colorimetric biosensor with dually-amplified signal for the specific detection of Aβo. The sensor displays some advantages including high specificity, high sensitivity, low detection limit down to 0.23 pM, and wide detection range with three orders of magnitude from 0.3472 to 694.44 pM. Furthermore, the proposed sensor was successfully applied for detecting Aβo in artificial and real cerebrospinal fluids with satisfactory results, suggesting the potential application of the proposed sensor for state-monitoring and pathological studies of AD.

Fendrr synergizes with Wnt signalling to regulate fibrosis related genes during lung development via its RNA:dsDNA triplex element

Long non-coding RNAs are a very versatile class of molecules that can have important roles in regulating a cells function, including regulating other genes on the transcriptional level. One of these mechanisms is that RNA can directly interact with DNA thereby recruiting additional components such as proteins to these sites via an RNA:dsDNA triplex formation. We genetically deleted the triplex forming sequence (FendrrBox) from the lncRNA Fendrr in mice and found that this FendrrBox is partially required for Fendrr function in vivo. We found that the loss of the triplex forming site in developing lungs causes a dysregulation of gene programs associated with lung fibrosis. A set of these genes contain a triplex site directly at their promoter and are expressed in lung fibroblasts. We biophysically confirmed the formation of an RNA:dsDNA triplex with target promoters in vitro. We found that Fendrr with the Wnt signalling pathway regulates these genes, implicating that Fendrr synergizes with Wnt signalling in lung fibrosis.

G-quadruplex-selective iridium(III) complex as a novel electrochemiluminescence probe for switch-on assay of double-stranded DNA

In this work, we synthesized an iridium(III) complex and studied its selective ability to interact with a specific G-quadruplex DNA sequence (GTGGGTAGGGCGGGTTGG). Results showed that the iridium(III) complex exhibits high selectivity for the G-quadruplex DNA and could be used as an efficient electrochemiluminescence (ECL) probe in a switch-on assay format for the detection of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA). To construct the assay, a hairpin-structured capture probe (CP) which was modified by thiol at its 3' end and contained the G-quadruplex sequence at its 5' end was firstly immobilized on a gold electrode. Upon the specific recognition of the dsDNA sequence with the corresponding CP, the hairpin structure of the CP was opened to free G-quadruplex sequence, forming the G-quadruplex structure with the assistance of K⁺. Then, the iridium(III) complex was able to specifically interact with the G-quadruplex to produce an obvious ECL signal that was proportional to the dsDNA concentration. Notably, this iridium(III) complex/G-quadruplex-based strategy was universal and was not limited to the analysis of DNA using specific sequences, thus opening a new avenue for the application of the G-quadruplex-selective iridium(III) complex in the field of ECL.

An enzyme free fluorescence resonance transfer strategy based on hybrid chain reaction and triplex DNA for Vibrio parahaemolyticus

In this work, an enzyme-free fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) strategy was established for rapid and specific detection of the DNA sequence from Vibrio parahaemolyticus (VP) using hybridization chain reaction (HCR) amplification and triplex DNA. The triplex forming oligonucleotide (TFO) was labelled with carboxyfluorescein (FAM) as fluorescence donor, and hairpin sequence H1 was labelled by tetramethylrhodamine (TAMRA) as fluorescence receptor. In the present target VP DNA, the hairpin structure of molecular beacon (MB) was opened, the free end was released and hybridized with H1-TAMRA, and the HCR reaction was triggered by the alternate supplementation of H1-TAMRA and H2 to produce the notch double helix analogue. After the addition of TFO-FAM, a triplex structure was formed between HCR products (H1-TAMRA/H2) and TFO-FAM. A close contact between the donor and the receptor resulted in FRET. Under the optimal conditions, the fluorescence quenching value was inversely proportional to the concentration of target VP DNA in the range of 0.1–50 nmol L⁻¹, and the detection limit was 35 pmol L⁻¹.

Isolation and genome-wide characterization of cellular DNA:RNA triplex structures

RNA can directly bind to purine-rich DNA via Hoogsteen base pairing, forming a DNA:RNA triple helical structure that anchors the RNA to specific sequences and allows guiding of transcription regulators to distinct genomic loci. To unravel the prevalence of DNA:RNA triplexes in living cells, we have established a fast and cost-effective method that allows genome-wide mapping of DNA:RNA triplex interactions. In contrast to previous approaches applied for the identification of chromatin-associated RNAs, this method uses protein-free nucleic acids isolated from chromatin. High-throughput sequencing and computational analysis of DNA-associated RNA revealed a large set of RNAs which originate from non-coding and coding loci, including super-enhancers and repeat elements. Combined analysis of DNA-associated RNA and RNA-associated DNA identified genomic DNA:RNA triplex structures. The results suggest that triplex formation is a general mechanism of RNA-mediated target-site recognition, which has major impact on biological functions.

Genome-wide computational analysis of potential long noncoding RNA mediated DNA:DNA:RNA triplexes in the human genome

BACKGROUND

Only a handful of long noncoding RNAs have been functionally characterized. They are known to modulate regulation through interacting with other biomolecules in the cell: DNA, RNA and protein. Though there have been detailed investigations on lncRNA-miRNA and lncRNA-protein interactions, the interaction of lncRNAs with DNA have not been studied extensively. In the present study, we explore whether lncRNAs could modulate genomic regulation by interacting with DNA through the formation of highly stable DNA:DNA:RNA triplexes.

METHODS

We computationally screened 23,898 lncRNA transcripts as annotated by GENCODE, across the human genome for potential triplex forming sequence stretches (PTS). The PTS frequencies were compared across 5'UTR, CDS, 3'UTR, introns, promoter and 1000 bases downstream of the transcription termination sites. These regions were annotated by mapping to experimental regulatory regions, classes of repeat regions and transcription factors. We validated few putative triplex mediated interactions where lncRNA-gene pair interaction is via pyrimidine triplex motif using biophysical methods.

RESULTS

We identified 20,04,034 PTS sites to be enriched in promoter and intronic regions across human genome. Additional analysis of the association of PTS with core promoter elements revealed a systematic paucity of PTS in all regulatory regions, except TF binding sites. A total of 25 transcription factors were found to be associated with PTS. Using an interaction network, we showed that a subset of the triplex forming lncRNAs, have a positive association with gene promoters. We also demonstrated an in vitro interaction of one lncRNA candidate with its predicted gene target promoter regions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our analysis shows that PTS are enriched in gene promoter and largely associated with simple repeats. The current study suggests a major role of a subset of lncRNAs in mediating chromatin organization modulation through CTCF and NSRF proteins.

Sequence specific recognition of HIV-1 dsDNA in the large amount of normal dsDNA based upon nicking enzyme signal amplification and triplex DNA

A sensitive fluorescent strategy for sequence specific recognition of HIV dsDNA was established based upon Nicking Enzyme Signal Amplification (NESA) and triplex formation. dsDNA sequence from the site 7960 to site 7991 of the HIV1 dsDNA gene was designed as target dsDNA, which was composed of two complementary strands Oligonucleotide 1 with the sequence of 3'-CTT CCT TAT CTT CTT CTT CCA CCT CTC TCT CT-5' (Oligo-1) and Oligonucleotide 2 with the sequence of 5'-GAA GGA ATA GAA GAA GAA GGT GGA GAG AGA GA-3' (Oligo-2). As a proof of concept, Oligonucleotide 5'-6-FAM-GAG GTG GAG CTG CGC GAC TCC TCC TCT CTC TCT CTC CAC CTC-BHQ-1-3'(Oligo-4) acted as molecular beacon(MB) probe, Oligonucleotide 5'-CTT CCT TAT CTT CTT CTT CCA AAA GGA GTC GCG-3' (Oligo-7) acted as assistant probe. In the presence of target dsDNA, Oligo-4 and Oligo-7 hybridized with target dsDNA through triplex formation and formed Y-shaped structure, NESA occurred with further addition of Nt.BbvCI, accompanied with the release of fluorescent DNA fragment circularly, resulted in the increase of fluorescence intensity. Under the optimum conditions, the fluorescence intensity was linear with the concentration of target dsDNA over the range from 100pM to 200nM, the linear regression equation was I = 1.266 C + 84.3 (C: nmol/L, R² = 0.991), with a detection limit of 65pM. Moreover, the effect of coexisted other dsDNA was investigated as well, and satisfactory results were obtained.

Ultrasensitive colorimetric detection of circulating tumor DNA using hybridization chain reaction and the pivot of triplex DNA

This work presents an amplified colorimetric biosensor for circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), which associates the hybridization chain reaction (HCR) amplification with G-Quadruplex DNAzymes activity through triplex DNA formation. In the presence of ctDNA, HCR occurs. The resulting HCR products are specially recognized by one sequence to include one GGG repeat and the other containing three GGG repeats, through the synergetic effect of triplex DNA and asymmetrically split G-Quadruplex forming. Such design takes advantage of the amplification property of HCR and the high peroxidase-like catalytic activity of asymmetrically split G-Quadruplex DNAzymes by means of triplex DNA formation, which produces color signals in the presence of ctDNA. Nevertheless, in the absence of ctDNA, no HCR happens. Thus, no triplex DNA and G-Quadruplex structure is formed, producing a negligible background. The colorimetric sensing platform is successfully applied in complex biological environments such as human blood plasma for ctDNA detection, with a detection limit corresponding to 0.1 pM. This study unambiguously uses triplex DNA forming as the pivot to integrate nucleic acid amplification and DNAzymes for producing a highly sensitive signal with low background.

Triplex DNA logic gate based upon switching on/off their structure by Ag(+)/cysteine

The formation of intramolecular triplex DNA can be regulated by Ag(+) and Cys (cysteine), which switch off/on the fluorescence of the oligonucleotides, 5'-TAMRA-TTC TCT TCC TCT TCC TTC TGA CGA CAG TTG ACT CTT CCT TCT CCT TCT CTT-BHQ-2-3' (Oligo 1) and 3'-GAA GGA AGA GGA AGA GAA-5' (Oligo 2). Based on this principle, sensors for Ag(+) and Cys are developed. The sensor for Ag(+) has a linear range of 2.5 nM-40 nM and a detection limit of 1.8 nM, whereas the sensor for Cys has a linear range of 10.0 nM-120.0 nM and a detection limit of 8.2 nM. Furthermore, the fluorescence is reversible with the alternate addition of Ag(+) and Cys. We constructed a DNA logic gate using Ag(+) and Cys as the input, and the fluorescence intensity as the output. The DNA logic gate is simple; moreover, it has a fast response and good reversibility.

Rational design of supramolecular hemin/G-quadruplex-dopamine aptamer nucleoapzyme systems with superior catalytic performance

The rational design of a set of hemin/G-quadruplex (hGQ)-dopamine binding aptamer (DBA) conjugates, acting as nucleoapzymes, is described. The nucleoapzyme constructs consist of a hGQ DNAzyme as a catalytic unit and DBA as a substrate binding unit that are brought into spatial proximity by a duplex scaffold composed of complementary oligonucleotide strands. When the hGQ unit is linked to the duplex scaffold via a single-strand DNA tether of variable length, the resulting nucleoapzymes reveal a moderate catalytic enhancement toward the H2O2-mediated oxidation of dopamine to aminochrome as compared to the process stimulated by the separated hGQ and DBA units (5-7 fold enhancement). This limited enhancement is attributed to inappropriate spatial positioning of the hGQ in respect to the dopamine binding site, and/or to the flexibility of the tether that links the hGQ catalytic site to the double-stranded scaffold. To solve this, rigidification of the hGQ/DBA conjugates by triplex oligonucleotide structures that anchor the hGQ to a duplex domain associated with the DBA units was achieved. By the sequential, programmed, triplex-controlled rigidification of the hGQ/DBA structure, a nucleoapzyme with superior catalytic activity toward the oxidation of dopamine to aminochrome is identified (30-fold catalytic enhancement). Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that in the resulting highly active rigidified nucleoapzyme structure, the hGQ catalytic site is positioned in spatial proximity to the opening of the DBA substrate binding site, thus rationalizing and supporting the enhanced catalytic functions of the system. Finally, the most active nucleoapzyme system was subjected to fuel- and anti-fuel strands that separate and re-assemble the nucleoapzyme structure, allowing "ON" and "OFF" switching of the nucleoapzyme catalytic functions.

Polyanionic Carboxyethyl Peptide Nucleic Acids (ce-PNAs): Synthesis and DNA Binding

New polyanionic modifications of polyamide nucleic acid mimics were obtained. Thymine decamers were synthesized from respective chiral α- and γ-monomers, and their enantiomeric purity was assessed. Here, we present the decamer synthesis, purification and characterization by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and an investigation of the hybridization properties of the decamers. We show that the modified γ-S-carboxyethyl-T₁₀ PNA forms a stable triplex with polyadenine DNA.

Triplex DNA: A new platform for polymerase chain reaction-based biosensor

Non - specific PCR amplification and DNA contamination usually accompany with PCR process, to overcome these problems, here we establish a sensor for thrombin by sequence - specific recognition of the PCR product with molecular beacon through triplex formation. Probe A and probe B were designed for the sensor, upon addition of thrombin, two probes hybridized to each other and the probe B was extended in the presence of Klenow Fragment polymerase and dNTPs. The PCR amplification occurred with further addition of Taq DNA Polymerase and two primers, the PCR product was recognized by molecular beacon through triplex formation. The fluorescence intensity increased with the logarithm of the concentration of thrombin over the range from 1.0 × 10⁻¹² M to 1.0 × 10⁻⁷ M, with a detection limit of 261 fM. Moreover, the effect of DNA contamination and non - specific amplification could be ignored completely in the proposed strategy.

MEG3 long noncoding RNA regulates the TGF-β pathway genes through formation of RNA-DNA triplex structures

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) regulate gene expression by association with chromatin, but how they target chromatin remains poorly understood. We have used chromatin RNA immunoprecipitation-coupled high-throughput sequencing to identify 276 lncRNAs enriched in repressive chromatin from breast cancer cells. Using one of the chromatin-interacting lncRNAs, MEG3, we explore the mechanisms by which lncRNAs target chromatin. Here we show that MEG3 and EZH2 share common target genes, including the TGF-β pathway genes. Genome-wide mapping of MEG3 binding sites reveals that MEG3 modulates the activity of TGF-β genes by binding to distal regulatory elements. MEG3 binding sites have GA-rich sequences, which guide MEG3 to the chromatin through RNA–DNA triplex formation. We have found that RNA–DNA triplex structures are widespread and are present over the MEG3 binding sites associated with the TGF-β pathway genes. Our findings suggest that RNA–DNA triplex formation could be a general characteristic of target gene recognition by the chromatin-interacting lncRNAs.

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) regulate gene expression by association with chromatin. Here, the authors show that lncRNA MEG3 regulates the TGF-β pathway by bridging the interactions between polycomb repressive complex 2 and the distal regulatory elements of the TGF-β pathway genes via formation of RNA–DNA triplexes.

Unlocked nucleic acids: implications of increased conformational flexibility for RNA/DNA triplex formation

Unlocked nucleic acids (UNAs) have been introduced at specific positions in short model DNA hairpins and RNA/DNA triplexes for the first time. UNA residues destabilize the hairpins and decrease triplex thermodynamic stability or suppress triplex formation for most of the evaluated structures. Nevertheless, the incorporation of UNA residues at certain positions of dsDNA was found to be energetically favourable or at least did not affect triplex stability. Notably, the most thermodynamically stable UNA-modified triplexes exhibited improved stability at both acidic and physiological pH. The specificity of the interactions between the triplex-forming oligonucleotide and dsDNA was characterized using EMSA for the most thermodynamically stable structures, and triplex dissociation constants were determined. One of the modified triplexes exhibited an improved Kd in comparison with the unmodified triplex. CD and thermal difference spectra indicated that UNA residues do not alter the overall structure of the most thermodynamically stable triplexes. In addition, incubation of the modified oligonucleotides with human serum indicated that the UNAs demonstrate the potential to improve the biological stability of nucleic acids.

A naturally occurring, noncanonical GTP aptamer made of simple tandem repeats

Recently, we used in vitro selection to identify a new class of naturally occurring GTP aptamer called the G motif. Here we report the discovery and characterization of a second class of naturally occurring GTP aptamer, the “CA motif.” The primary sequence of this aptamer is unusual in that it consists entirely of tandem repeats of CA-rich motifs as short as three nucleotides. Several active variants of the CA motif aptamer lack the ability to form consecutive Watson-Crick base pairs in any register, while others consist of repeats containing only cytidine and adenosine residues, indicating that noncanonical interactions play important roles in its structure. The circular dichroism spectrum of the CA motif aptamer is distinct from that of A-form RNA and other major classes of nucleic acid structures. Bioinformatic searches indicate that the CA motif is absent from most archaeal and bacterial genomes, but occurs in at least 70 percent of approximately 400 eukaryotic genomes examined. These searches also uncovered several phylogenetically conserved examples of the CA motif in rodent (mouse and rat) genomes. Together, these results reveal the existence of a second class of naturally occurring GTP aptamer whose sequence requirements, like that of the G motif, are not consistent with those of a canonical secondary structure. They also indicate a new and unexpected potential biochemical activity of certain naturally occurring tandem repeats.

2'-O,4'-C-ethylene bridged nucleic acid modification enhances pyrimidine motif triplex-forming ability under physiological condition

Since pyrimidine motif triplex DNA is unstable at physiological neutral pH, triplex stabilization at physiological neutral pH is important for improvement of its potential to be applied to various methods in vivo, such as repression of gene expression, mapping of genomic DNA and gene-targeted mutagenesis. For this purpose, we studied the thermodynamic and kinetic effects of a chemical modification, 2'-O,4'-C-ethylene bridged nucleic acid (ENA) modification of triplex-forming oligonucleotide (TFO), on pyrimidine motif triplex formation at physiological neutral pH. Thermodynamic investigations indicated that the modification achieved more than 10-fold increase in the binding constant of the triplex formation. The increased number of the modification in TFO enhanced the increased magnitude of the binding constant. On the basis of the obtained thermodynamic parameters, we suggested that the remarkably increased binding constant by the modification may result from the increased stiffness of TFO in the unbound state. Kinetic studies showed that the considerably decreased dissociation rate constant resulted in the observed increased binding constant by the modification. We conclude that ENA modification of TFO could be a useful chemical modification to promote the triplex formation under physiological neutral condition, and may advance various triplex formation-based methods in vivo.

Chemical modification of triplex-forming oligonucleotide to promote pyrimidine motif triplex formation at physiological pH

Extreme instability of pyrimidine motif triplex DNA at physiological pH severely limits its use in wide variety of potential applications, such as artificial regulation of gene expression, mapping of genomic DNA, and gene-targeted mutagenesis in vivo. Stabilization of pyrimidine motif triplex at physiological pH is, therefore, crucial for improving its potential in various triplex-formation-based strategies in vivo. To this end, we investigated the effect of 3'-amino-2'-O,4'-C-methylene bridged nucleic acid modification of triplex-forming oligonucleotide (TFO), in which 2'-O and 4'-C of the sugar moiety were bridged with the methylene chain and 3'-O was replaced by 3'-NH, on pyrimidine motif triplex formation at physiological pH. The modification not only significantly increased the thermal stability of the triplex but also increased the binding constant of triplex formation about 15-fold. The increased magnitude of the binding constant was not significantly changed when the number and position of the modification in TFO changed. The consideration of the observed thermodynamic parameters suggested that the increased rigidity of the modified TFO in the free state resulting from the bridging of different positions of the sugar moiety with an alkyl chain and the increased hydration of the modified TFO in the free state caused by the introduction of polar nitrogen atoms may significantly increase the binding constant at physiological pH. The study on the TFO viability in human serum showed that the modification significantly increased the resistance of TFO against nuclease degradation. This study presents an effective approach for designing novel chemically modified TFOs with higher binding affinity of triplex formation at physiological pH and higher nuclease resistance under physiological condition, which may eventually lead to progress in various triplex-formation-based strategies in vivo.

Gold nanoparticles-based colorimetric investigation of triplex formation under weak alkalic pH environment with the aid of Ag+

A novel colorimetric method for investigating triplex formation between oligonucleotide modified Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) under weak alkalic pH environment is developed based upon the specific recognition property of Ag+ with CGC triads. Oligonucleotide 5'-SH-T12-CTTCTTTCCTTTCTTC-3' (oligo-1) is modified on the surface of AuNPs. Upon addition of oligonucleotide 5'-GAAGAAAGGAAAGAAG-3' (oligo-2), triplex formation between oligo-1 modified AuNPs occurred at pH 8.0 with the aid of Ag+, triggers the aggregation of AuNPs, accompany with the solution color change from red to purple. The melting temperature demonstrates a 31 °C increase for the triplex DNA compose of 10 T•A∘T triads and 6 C•G∘C triads upon addition of Ag+, the disassociation constant (Kd) between Ag+ and C•G∘C triads is 3.6 μM. Moreover, triplex formation between AuNPs depending on Ag+ can be used to recognize Ag+ ion with the naked eye, as well as UV-vis absorption spectroscopy.

Interrupted 2'-o,4'-C-aminomethylene bridged nucleic acid modification enhances pyrimidine motif triplex-forming ability and nuclease resistance under physiological condition

Due to instability of pyrimidine motif triplex DNA at physiological pH, triplex stabilization at physiological pH is crucial in improving its potential in various triplex formation-based strategies in vivo, such as regulation of gene expression, mapping of genomic DNA, and gene-targeted mutagenesis. To this end, we investigated the effect of our previously reported chemical modification, 2'-O,4'-C-aminomethylene bridged nucleic acid (2',4'- BNA(NC)) modification, introduced into interrupted and continuous positions of triplex-forming oligonucleotide (TFO) on pyrimidine motif triplex formation at physiological pH. The interrupted 2',4'-BNA(NC) modifications of TFO increased the binding constant of the triplex formation at physiological pH by more than 10-fold, and significantly increased the nuclease resistance of TFO. On the other hand, the continuous 2',4'-BNA(NC) modification of TFO showed lower ability to promote the triplex formation at physiological pH than the interrupted 2',4'-BNA(NC) modifications of TFO, and did not significantly change the nuclease resistance of TFO. Selection of the interruptedly 2',4'-BNA(NC)-modified positions in TFO was more favorable for achieving the higher binding affinity of the pyrimidine motif triplex formation at physiological pH and the higher nuclease resistance of TFO than that of the continuously 2',4'-BNA(NC)-modified positions in TFO. We conclude that the interrupted 2',4'-BNA(NC) modification of TFO could be a key chemical modification to enhance pyrimidine motif triplex-forming ability and nuclease resistance under physiological condition, and may eventually lead to progress in various triplex formation-based strategies in vivo.

Cationic modified nucleic acids for use in DNA hairpins and parallel triplexes

Non-nucleosidic DNA monomers comprising partially protonated amines at low pH have been designed and synthesized. The modifications were incorporated into DNA oligonucleotides via standard DNA phosphoramidite synthesis. The ability of cationic modifications to stabilize palindromic DNA hairpins and parallel triplexes were evaluated using gel electrophoresis, circular dichroism and thermal denaturation measurements. The non-nucleosidic modifications were found to increase the thermal stability of palindromic hairpins at pH 8.0 as compared with a nucleosidic tetraloop (TCTC). Incorporation of modifications at the 5'-end of a triplex forming oligonucleotide resulted in a significant increase in thermal stability at low pH when the modifications were placed as the 5'-dangling end.

Presence of divalent cation is not mandatory for the formation of intramolecular purine-motif triplex containing human c-jun protooncogene target

Modulation of endogenous gene function, through sequence-specific recognition of double helical DNA via oligonucleotide-directed triplex formation, is a promising approach. Compared to the formation of pyrimidine motif triplexes, which require relatively low pH, purine motif appears to be the most gifted for their stability under physiological conditions. Our previous work has demonstrated formation of magnesium-ion dependent highly stable intermolecular triplexes using a purine third strand of varied lengths, at the purine•pyrimidine (Pu•Py) targets of SIV/HIV-2 (vpx) genes (Svinarchuk, F., Monnot, M., Merle, A., Malvy, C., and Fermandjian, S. (1995) Nucleic Acids Res. 23, 3831-3836). Herein, we show that a designed intramolecular version of the 11-bp core sequence of the said targets, which also constitutes an integral, short, and symmetrical segment (G(2)AG(5)AG(2))•(C(2)TC(5)TC(2)) of human c-jun protooncogene forms a stable triplex, even in the absence of magnesium. The sequence d-C(2)TC(5)TC(2)T(5)G(2)AG(5)AG(2)T(5)G(2)AG(5)AG(2) (I-Pu) folds back twice onto itself to form an intramolecular triple helix via a double hairpin formation. The design ensures that the orientation of the intact third strand is antiparallel with respect to the oligopurine strand of the duplex. The triple helix formation has been revealed by non-denaturating gel assays, UV-thermal denaturation, and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. The monophasic melting curve, recorded in the presence of sodium, represented the dissociation of intramolecular triplex to single strand in one step; however, the addition of magnesium bestowed thermal stability to the triplex. Formation of intramolecular triple helix at neutral pH in sodium, with or without magnesium cations, was also confirmed by gel electrophoresis. The triplex, mediated by sodium alone, destabilizes in the presence of 5'-C(2)TC(5)TC(2)-3', an oligonucleotide complementary to the 3'-oligopurine segments of I-Pu, whereas in the presence of magnesium the triplex remained impervious. CD spectra showed the signatures of triplex structure with A-like DNA conformation. We suggest that the possible formation of pH and magnesium-independent purine-motif triplexes at genomic Pu•Py sequences may be pertinent to gene regulation.

Synthesis of β-pyrrolic-modified porphyrins and their incorporation into DNA

A synthetic methodology for the synthesis of various β-pyrrolic-functionalised porphyrins and their covalent attachment to 2'-deoxyuridine and DNA is described. Palladium(0)-catalysed Sonogashira and copper(I)-catalysed Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reactions were used to insert porphyrins into the structure of 2'-deoxyuridine and DNA. Insertion of a porphyrin into the middle of single-stranded CT oligonucleotides possessing a 5'-terminal run of four cytosines was shown to trigger the formation of pH- and temperature-dependent i-motif structures. Porphyrin insertion also led to the aggregation of single-stranded purine-pyrimidine sequences, which could be dissociated by heating at 90 °C for 5 min. Parallel triplexes and anti-parallel duplexes were formed in the presence of the appropriate complementary strand(s). Depending on the modification, porphyrins were placed in the major and minor grooves of duplexes and were used as bulged intercalating insertions in duplexes and triplexes. In general, the thermal stabilisation of parallel triplexes possessing porphyrin-modified triplex-forming oligonucleotide (TFO) strands was observed, whereas anti-parallel duplexes were destabilised. These results are compared and discussed on the basis of the results of molecular modelling calculations.

2'-O,4'-C-aminomethylene-bridged nucleic acid modification with enhancement of nuclease resistance promotes pyrimidine motif triplex nucleic acid formation at physiological pH

Due to the instability of pyrimidine motif triplex DNA at physiological pH, triplex stabilization at physiological pH is crucial in improving its potential in various triplex-formation-based strategies in vivo, such as gene expression regulation, genomic DNA mapping, and gene-targeted mutagenesis. To this end, we investigated the thermodynamic and kinetic effects of our previously reported chemical modification, 2'-O,4'-C-aminomethylene-bridged nucleic acid (2',4'-BNA(NC)) modification of triplex-forming oligonucleotide (TFO), on triplex formation at physiological pH. The thermodynamic analyses indicated that the 2',4'-BNA(NC) modification of TFO increased the binding constant of the triplex formation at physiological pH by more than 10-fold. The number and position of the 2',4'-BNA(NC) modification in TFO did not significantly affect the magnitude of the increase in the binding constant. The consideration of the observed thermodynamic parameters suggested that the increased rigidity and the increased degree of hydration of the 2',4'-BNA(NC)-modified TFO in the free state relative to the unmodified TFO may enable the significant increase in the binding constant. Kinetic data demonstrated that the observed increase in the binding constant by the 2',4'-BNA(NC) modification resulted mainly from the considerable decrease in the dissociation rate constant. The TFO stability in human serum showed that the 2',4'-BNA(NC) modification significantly increased the nuclease resistance of TFO. Our results support the idea that the 2',4'-BNA(NC) modification of TFO could be a key chemical modification to achieve higher binding affinity and higher nuclease resistance in the triplex formation under physiological conditions, and may lead to progress in various triplex-formation-based strategies in vivo.

Triplex-stabilizing properties of parallel clamps carrying LNA derivatives at the Hoogsteen strand

DNA Parallel clamps with a polypurine strand linked to a polypyrimidine Hoogsteen strand containing locked nucleic acids bind their corresponding polypyrimidine targets with high affinity.

Synergistic stabilization of nucleic acid assembly by 2'-O,4'-C-methylene-bridged nucleic acid modification and additions of comb-type cationic copolymers

Stabilization of nucleic acid assemblies, such as duplex and triplex, is quite important for their wide variety of potential applications. Various stabilization methods, including molecular designs of chemically modified nucleotides and hybrid stabilizers, and combinations of different stabilization methods have been developed to increase stability of nucleic acid assemblies. However, combinations of two stabilizing methods have not always yielded desired synergistic effects. In the present study, to propose a strategy for selection of a rational combination of stabilizing methods, we demonstrate synergistic stabilization of triplex by 2'-O,4'-C-methylene-bridged nucleic acid (2',4'-BNA) modification of triplex-forming oligonucleotide and addition of poly(l-lysine)-graft-dextran copolymer [poly(l-lysine) grafted with hydrophilic dextran side chains]. Each of these methods increased the binding constant for triplex formation by nearly 2 orders of magnitude. However, their kinetic contributions were quite distinct. The copolymer increased the association rate constant, whereas the 2',4'-BNA modification decreased the dissociation rate constant for triplex stabilization. The combination of both stabilizing methods increased the binding constant by nearly 4 orders of magnitude. Kinetic analyses revealed that the successful synergistic stabilization resulted from kinetic complementarity between increased association rate constants by the copolymer and decreased dissociation rate constants by the 2',4'-BNA modification. The stabilizing effect of one stabilization method did not alter that of the other stabilization method. We propose that kinetic analyses of each stabilizing effect permit selection of a rational combination of stabilizing methods for successful synergy in stabilizing nucleic acid assemblies.

Triplex formation on DNA targets: how to choose the oligonucleotide

Triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) are sequence-specific DNA binders. TFOs provide a tool for controlling gene expression or, when attached to an appropriate chemical reagent, for directing DNA damage. Here, we report a set of rules for predicting the best out of five different triple-helical binding motifs (TM, UM, GA, GT, and GU, where M is 5-methyldeoxycytidine and U is deoxyuridine) by taking into consideration the sequence composition of the underlying duplex target. We tested 11 different triplex targets present in genes having an oncogenic role. The rules have predictive power and are very useful in the design of TFOs for antigene applications. Briefly, we retained motifs GU and TM, and when they do form a triplex, TFOs containing G and U are preferred over those containing T and M. In the case of the G-rich TFOs, triplex formation is principally dependent on the percentage of G and the length of the TFO. In the case of the pyrimidine motif, replacement of T with U is destabilizing; triplex formation is dependent on the percentage of T and destabilized by the presence of several contiguous M residues. An equation to choose between a GU and TM motif is given.

Spectroscopic studies on the formation and thermal stability of DNA triplexes with a benzoannulated delta-carboline-oligonucleotide conjugate

A benzoannulated delta-carboline with a phenyl substituent has been covalently tethered to the 3'-end of a triplex-forming oligonucleotide and its ability to bind and stabilize DNA triple helices has been examined by various spectroscopic methods. UV thermal melting experiments were conducted with different hairpin duplexes and with a complementary single-stranded oligonucleotide as targets for the conjugate. The delta-carboline ligand preferentially binds triplexes over duplexes and leads to a temperature increase of the triplex-to-duplex transition by up to 23 degrees C. The results obtained from UV, CD and fluorescence measurements suggest that the delta-carboline ligand exhibits specific interactions with a triplex and favors binding by intercalation at the triplex-duplex junction.

The triple helix: 50 years later, the outcome

Triplex-forming oligonucleotides constitute an interesting DNA sequence-specific tool that can be used to target cleaving or cross-linking agents, transcription factors or nucleases to a chosen site on the DNA. They are not only used as biotechnological tools but also to induce modifications on DNA with the aim to control gene expression, such as by site-directed mutagenesis or DNA recombination. Here, we report the state of art of the triplex-based anti-gene strategy 50 years after the discovery of such a structure, and we show the importance of the actual applications and the main challenges that we still have ahead of us.

Triplex formation by pyrene-labelled probes for nucleic acid detection in fluorescence assays

Triplex-forming homopyrimidine oligonucleotides containing insertions of a 2'-5' uridine linkage featuring a pyrene moiety at the 3'-position exhibit strong fluorescence enhancement upon binding to double-stranded DNA through Hoogsteen base pairing. It is shown that perfect matching of the new modification to the base pair in the duplex is a prerequisite for strong fluorescence, thus offering the potential to detect single mutations in purine stretches of duplex DNA. The increase in the fluorescence signal was dependent on the thermal stability of the parallel triplex, so a reduction in the pH from 6.0 to 5.0 resulted in an increase in thermal stability from 25.0 to 55.0 degrees C and in an increase in the fluorescence quantum yield (Phi(F)) from 0.061 to 0.179, while the probe alone was fluorescently silent (Phi(F)=0.001-0.004). To achieve higher triplex stability, five nucleobases in a 14-mer sequence were substituted with alpha-L-LNA monomers, which provided a triplex with a T(m) of 49.5 degrees C and a Phi(F) of 0.158 at pH 6.0. Under similar conditions, a Watson-Crick-type duplex formed with the latter probe showed lower fluorescence intensity (Phi(F)=0.081) than for the triplex.

Purine twisted-intercalating nucleic acids: a new class of anti-gene molecules resistant to potassium-induced aggregation

Sequence-specific targeting of genomic DNA by triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) is a promising strategy to modulate in vivo gene expression. Triplex formation involving G-rich oligonucleotides as third strand is, however, strongly inhibited by potassium-induced TFO self-association into G-quartet structures. We report here that G-rich TFOs with bulge insertions of (R)-1-O-[4-(1-pyrenylethynyl)-phenylmethyl] glycerol (called twisted intercalating nucleic acids, TINA) show a much lower tendency to aggregate in potassium than wild-type analogues do. We designed purine-motif TINA–TFOs for binding to a regulatory polypurine-polypyrimidine (pur/pyr) motif present in the promoter of the KRAS proto-oncogene. The binding of TINA–TFOs to the KRAS target has been analysed by electrophoresis mobility shift assays and DNase I footprinting experiments. We discovered that in the presence of potassium the wild-type TFOs did not bind to the KRAS target, differently from the TINA analogues, whose binding was observed up to 140 mM KCl. The designed TINA–TFOs were found to abrogate the formation of a DNA–protein complex at the pur/pyr site and to down-regulate the transcription of CAT driven by the murine KRAS promoter. Molecular modelling of the DNA/TINA–TFO triplexes are also reported. This study provides a new and promising approach to create TFOs to target in vivo the genome.

Synthesis and triplex-forming properties of cyclic oligonucleotides with (G,A)-antiparallel strands

Cyclic oligonucleotides carrying an oligopurine Watson-Crick sequence linked to the corresponding (G,A)- and (G,T)-antiparallel strands were prepared by nonenzymatic template-assisted cyclization of phosphorylated precursors. Cyclization was attempted using 3'-phosphate and 5'-phosphate linear precursors with carbodiimide or BrCN activation. The best results were obtained with the 5'-phosphorylated precursors and carbodiimide activation. Cyclic oligonucleotides bind polypyrimidine target sequence by formation of antiparallel triplexes. We have used UV and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy to analyze triplexes formed by cyclic oligonucleotides carrying G and A in the reverse-Hoogsteen strand. The relative stability of the triplexes formed by cyclic and linear oligonucleotides with a common polypyrimidine target was determined by melting experiments. The most-stable triplexes were formed by the cyclic oligonucleotide, followed by the unphosphorylated and phosphorylated oligonucleotide precursors, and, finally, the corresponding hairpin. Although the differences in binding affinity between cyclic oligonucleotides and their corresponding linear precursors are small, the use of cyclic oligonucleotides offers a clear advantage over conventional duplex recognition.

Triplex formation with alpha-L-LNA (alpha-L-ribo-configured locked nucleic acid)

Using UV melting and CD spectroscopy, we show that alpha-l-LNA-modified oligonucleotides possess the ability to form triplexes at pH 6.8 with significantly increased thermostability relative to DNA triplexes.

Thermal stability of triple helical DNAs containing 2'-deoxyinosine and 2'-deoxyxanthosine

In this paper, we describe the synthesis and thermal stabilities of the triplexes containing either 2'-deoxyinosine (1) or 2'-deoxyxanthosine (3) in their second strands. It was found that the triplexes with the 2'-deoxy-5-methylcytidine(dM)*1:dC and dM*1:dA base triplets are thermally stable, but those containing the dM*1:T and dM*1:dG base triplets are unstable under both neutral and slightly acidic conditions. On the other hand, it was found that the oligonucleotide containing 3 could form thermally stable triplexes with the oligonucleotides that involve four natural bases opposite the sites of 3. The rank of the thermal stabilities of the triplexes was as follows: the triplex containing the dM*3:dC base triplet > that containing the dM*3:dA base triplet > that containing the dM*3:T base triplet > that containing the dM*3:dG base triplet.

Promotion of stable triplex formation by partial incorporation of 2',5'-phosphodiester linkages into triplex-forming oligonucleotides

Pentadecamer homopyrimidine oligonucleotides containing three or more 2',5'-phosphodiester linkages in different modes were prepared and used to evaluate the ability as a triplex-forming oligonucleotide (TFO), and it was found that discontinuous replacement of the 3',5'-phosphodiester linkages in TFO by 2',5'-linkages significantly stabilizes parallel-motif triplexes.

Analysis of GAA/TTC DNA triplexes using nuclear magnetic resonance and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

The formation of a GAA/TTC DNA triplex has been implicated in Friedreich's ataxia. The destabilization of GAA/TTC DNA triplexes either by pH or by binding to appropriate ligands was analyzed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and positive-ion electrospray mass spectrometry. The triplexes and duplexes were identified by changes in the NMR chemical shifts of H8, H1, H4, 15N7, and 15N4. The lowest pH at which the duplex is detectable depends upon the overall stability and the relative number of Hoogsteen C composite function G to T composite function A basepairs. A melting pH (pHm) of 7.6 was observed for the destabilization of the (GAA)2T4(TTC)2T4(CTT)2 triplex to the corresponding Watson-Crick duplex and the T4(CTT)2 overhang. The mass spectrometric analyses of (TTC)6.(GAA)6 composite function(TTC)6 triplex detected ions due to both triplex and single-stranded oligonucleotides under acidic conditions. The triplex ions disappeared completely at alkaline pH. Duplex and single strands were detectable only at neutral and alkaline pH values. Mass spectrometric analyses also showed that minor groove-binding ligands berenil, netropsin, and distamycin and the intercalating ligand acridine orange destabilize the (TTC)6.(GAA)6 composite function (TTC)6 triplex. These NMR and mass spectrometric methods may function as screening assays for the discovery of agents that destabilize GAA/TTC triplexes and as general methods for the characterization of structure, dynamics, and stability of DNA and DNA-ligand complexes.

Synergistic stabilization of nucleic acid assembly by oligo-N3'-->P5' phosphoramidate modification and additions of comb-type cationic copolymers

Synergic stabilization of DNA triplexes by oligo-N3'-->P5' phosphoramidate (PN) modification and additions of comb-type cationic copolymers was demonstrated. The combination of the copolymer and the PN modification increased triplex K(a) about 4 orders of magnitude. Kinetic analysis revealed that observed stabilization resulted from kinetic complimentarity between increased association rates by the copolymer and decreased dissociation rates by the PN modification of triplex forming oligonucleotides. No countering interference between these stabilizing effects was observed. We propose that kinetic analyses of stabilizing effects permit selection of a rational combination of stabilizing methods for successful synergy in stabilizing complex formation.