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Pitnick S, Wolfner MF, Dorus S. Post-ejaculatory modifications to sperm (PEMS). Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:365-392. [PMID: 31737992 PMCID: PMC7643048 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2019] [Revised: 10/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian sperm must spend a minimum period of time within a female reproductive tract to achieve the capacity to fertilize oocytes. This phenomenon, termed sperm 'capacitation', was discovered nearly seven decades ago and opened a window into the complexities of sperm-female interaction. Capacitation is most commonly used to refer to a specific combination of processes that are believed to be widespread in mammals and includes modifications to the sperm plasma membrane, elevation of intracellular cyclic AMP levels, induction of protein tyrosine phosphorylation, increased intracellular Ca2+ levels, hyperactivation of motility, and, eventually, the acrosome reaction. Capacitation is only one example of post-ejaculatory modifications to sperm (PEMS) that are widespread throughout the animal kingdom. Although PEMS are less well studied in non-mammalian taxa, they likely represent the rule rather than the exception in species with internal fertilization. These PEMS are diverse in form and collectively represent the outcome of selection fashioning complex maturational trajectories of sperm that include multiple, sequential phenotypes that are specialized for stage-specific functionality within the female. In many cases, PEMS are critical for sperm to migrate successfully through the female reproductive tract, survive a protracted period of storage, reach the site of fertilization and/or achieve the capacity to fertilize eggs. We predict that PEMS will exhibit widespread phenotypic plasticity mediated by sperm-female interactions. The successful execution of PEMS thus has important implications for variation in fitness and the operation of post-copulatory sexual selection. Furthermore, it may provide a widespread mechanism of reproductive isolation and the maintenance of species boundaries. Despite their possible ubiquity and importance, the investigation of PEMS has been largely descriptive, lacking any phylogenetic consideration with regard to divergence, and there have been no theoretical or empirical investigations of their evolutionary significance. Here, we (i) clarify PEMS-related nomenclature; (ii) address the evolutionary origin, maintenance and divergence in PEMS in the context of the protracted life history of sperm and the complex, selective environment of the female reproductive tract; (iii) describe taxonomically widespread types of PEMS: sperm activation, chemotaxis and the dissociation of sperm conjugates; (iv) review the occurence of PEMS throughout the animal kingdom; (v) consider alternative hypotheses for the adaptive value of PEMS; (vi) speculate on the evolutionary implications of PEMS for genomic architecture, sexual selection, and reproductive isolation; and (vii) suggest fruitful directions for future functional and evolutionary analyses of PEMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Pitnick
- Department of Biology, Center for Reproductive Evolution, Syacuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
| | - Mariana F. Wolfner
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Steve Dorus
- Department of Biology, Center for Reproductive Evolution, Syacuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA
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Cryo-Electron Microscopy Reveals That Sperm Modification Coincides with Female Fertility in the Mosquito Aedes aegypti. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18537. [PMID: 31811199 PMCID: PMC6898104 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54920-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Manipulating mosquito reproduction is a promising approach to reducing mosquito populations and the burden of diseases they carry. A thorough understanding of reproductive processes is necessary to develop such strategies, but little is known about how sperm are processed and prepared for fertilization within female mosquitoes. By employing cryo-electron microscopy for the first time to study sperm of the mosquito Aedes aegypti, we reveal that sperm shed their entire outer coat, the glycocalyx, within 24 hours of being stored in the female. Motility assays demonstrate that as their glycocalyx is shed in the female’s sperm storage organs, sperm transition from a period of dormancy to rapid motility—a critical prerequisite for sperm to reach the egg. We also show that females gradually become fertile as sperm become motile, and that oviposition behavior increases sharply after females reach peak fertility. Together, these experiments demonstrate a striking coincidence of the timelines of several reproductive events in Ae. aegypti, suggesting a direct relationship between sperm modification and female reproductive capacity.
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Dallai R. Overview on spermatogenesis and sperm structure of Hexapoda. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2014; 43:257-290. [PMID: 24732045 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Revised: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The main characteristics of the sperm structure of Hexapoda are reported in the review. Data are dealing with the process of spermatogenesis, including the aberrant models giving rise to a reduced number of sperm cells. The sperm heteromorphism and the giant sperm exceeding the usual sperm size for length and width are considered. The characteristics of several components of a typical insect sperm are described: the plasma membrane and its glycocalyx, the nucleus, the centriole region and the centriole adjunct, the accessory bodies, the mitochondrial derivatives and the flagellar axoneme. Finally, a detailed description of the main sperm features of each hexapodan group is given with emphasis on the flagellar components considered to have great importance in phylogenetic considerations. This study may be also useful to those requiring an introduction to hexapod reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romano Dallai
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, Via Aldo Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy.
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Ndiaye M, Mattei X, Thiaw OT. Maturation of mosquito spermatozoa during their transit throughout the male and female reproductive systems. Tissue Cell 2009; 29:675-8. [PMID: 18627833 DOI: 10.1016/s0040-8166(97)80043-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/1996] [Accepted: 07/22/1997] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The testes, seminal vesicles and spermathecae of 22 species of mosquitoes belonging to the genera Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, Mansonia and Toxorhynchites are investigated under the electron microscope. Modifications of the acrosome and sperm wall occur during the transit of the spermatozoon from the lower region of the testes to the spermathecae throughout the seminal vesicles. The origin and fate of the cell coat and the possible roles of somatic cell layers both in the testes and the seminal vesicles are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ndiaye
- Department of Animal Biology, Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar, Senegal
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Mercati D, Giusti F, Dallai R. A novel membrane specialization in the sperm tail of bug insects (heteroptera). J Morphol 2009; 270:825-33. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.10721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Dallai R, Beani L, Kathirithamby J, Lupetti P, Afzelius BA. New findings on sperm ultrastructure of Xenos vesparum (Rossi) (Strepsiptera, Insecta). Tissue Cell 2003; 35:19-27. [PMID: 12589726 DOI: 10.1016/s0040-8166(02)00099-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The systematic position of insect order Strepsiptera is still under debate. It was, therefore, thought of interest to examine the ultrastructure of a strepsipteran in a search for synapomorphies shared with Coleoptera, Diptera, or any other insect order. The fine structure of spermatozoa and the spermatid from Xenos vesparum (Rossi) was re-examined using scanning and transmission electron microscopy and a fixation technique that permits the visualization of the macromolecular organization of the organelles. The spermatozoon was shown to possess several traits that are characteristics of insects in general, such as a 9 + 9 + 2 axoneme, two mitochondrial derivatives containing a crystalline material and two 'zipper lines' present along the sperm tail. Seventeen protofilaments occurred along most of the accessory tubules, which reduced to 16 posteriorly. An acrosome is absent. The neck region contains a prominent centriolar adjunct, which gives rise to two accessory bodies which adhere to the mitochondrial derivatives, and to slender strands of the so-called intertubular material found between the accessory tubules. Of interest is the finding that the glycocalyx consists of prominent filamentous strands, similar to those found in siphonapterans, mecopterans and basal dipterans.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Dallai
- Dipartimento di Biologia Evolutiva, University of Siena, Via A Moro 2, IT-53100 Siena, Italy.
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Hosfeld B. On sperm ultrastructure, spermiogenesis and the spermatophore of Heterolaophonte minuta (Copepoda, Harpacticoida). ZOOMORPHOLOGY 1994. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00416858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Báo SN, de Souza W. Structural specialization in the flagellum of the spermatozoon of the bloodsucking bug (Rhodnius prolixus; Hemiptera, Reduviidae). Tissue Cell 1994; 26:299-308. [PMID: 8073413 DOI: 10.1016/0040-8166(94)90016-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Spermatozoa of the triatomideo Rhodnius prolixus possess an axoneme with a 9 + 9 + 2 microtubule pattern and two mitochondrial derivatives. Bridges occur between axoneme and mitochondrial derivatives. Two paracrystalline structures embedded in amorphous regions were observed in the mitochondrial derivative. The use of the negative staining technique shows a zig-zag profile in the mitochondrial derivatives due to infolding to the cristae, regularly spaced with approximately 50 nm. This spacing is also observed in the distribution of the strands of particles in the mitochondrial membrana as seen in freeze-fracture replicas. In the P-fracture face of the flagellar plasma membrane, a regular array of the intramembranous particles was observed. This array consists of two rows, with 12-15 particles, and occurs in the space between the mitochondrial derivatives. Thus R. prolixus spermatozoon present a membrane domain, localized in the flagellar region, and bridges between mitochondrial membrane derivatives and the plasma membrane are probably attached to the flagellar components. These membrane specializations may be related to the production of co-ordinated flagellar movement, and can contribute significantly to further phylogenetic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N Báo
- Departamento de Genética e Morfologia, Universidade de Brasília, Brasil
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LONGO GUGLIELMO, SOTTILE LORENZO, VISCUSO RENATA, GIUFFRIDA ANDREA, PRIVITERA ROSSELLA. Ultrastructural changes in sperm ofEyprepocnemis plorans(Charpentier) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) during storage of gametes in female genital tract. INVERTEBR REPROD DEV 1993. [DOI: 10.1080/07924259.1993.9672325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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11
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Plasma-membrane glycoproteins during spermiogenesis and in the spermatozoa of some Orthoptera. Cell Tissue Res 1991. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00319040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Giuffrida A. Connecting flagellar elements in the sperm of Eyprepocnemis plorans (Charpentier) (Orthoptera : Acrididae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-7322(91)90020-a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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13
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Osanai M, Kasuga H. Role of endopeptidase in motility induction in apyrene silkworm spermatozoa; micropore formation in the flagellar membrane. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01951759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Sonnenschein M, Häuser CL. Presence of only eupyrene spermatozoa in adult males of the genus Micropterix hübner and its phylogenetic significance (Lepidoptera : Zeugloptera, Micropterigidae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-7322(90)90012-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Perotti ME, Riva A. Concanavalin A binding sites on the surface of Drosophila melanogaster sperm: a fluorescence and ultrastructural study. JOURNAL OF ULTRASTRUCTURE AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE RESEARCH 1988; 100:173-82. [PMID: 3147297 DOI: 10.1016/0889-1605(88)90024-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of alpha-D-mannose/alpha-D-glucose terminal residues in the plasma membrane of Drosophila melanogaster spermatozoon has been investigated by fluorescence and electron microscopy using concanavalin A (Con A) labeling. The results indicate the presence of distinct domains on the sperm surface. Intense binding of Con A to the plasma membrane is highly restricted to the acrosomal region and to the endpiece of the tail. In the former, Con A receptors are not homogeneously distributed, suggesting the presence of microdomains in the acrosomal area. The main part of the tail contains very few Con A binding sites, which are confined to specific areas of the membrane. The sperm surface overlying the nucleus is completely negative. The labeling pattern is unchanged after storage in the female before fertilization. A preliminary analysis of the surface of mature oocytes using fluorochrome-conjugated horseradish peroxidase indicates that D-mannose binding molecules are specifically associated with the chorion of the micropyle anterior part, which might therefore be the site of a preliminary interaction between egg and spermatozoon.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Perotti
- Department of General Physiology and Biochemistry, University of Milano, Italy
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Dallai R, Afzelius B. Membrane specializations in the paired spermatozoa of dytiscid water beetles. Tissue Cell 1985; 17:561-72. [PMID: 18620143 DOI: 10.1016/0040-8166(85)90032-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/1985] [Revised: 05/13/1985] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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17
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In vitro release of house fly, Musca domestica l. (Diptera : Muscidae), acrosomal material after treatments with secretion of female accessory gland and micropyle cap substance. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1985. [DOI: 10.1016/0020-7322(85)90017-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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18
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Blades-Eckelbarger PI, Youngbluth MJ. The ultrastructure of spermatogenesis inLabidocera aestiva (copepoda: Calanoida). J Morphol 1982; 174:1-15. [PMID: 30103574 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.1051740102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - M J Youngbluth
- Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., Fort Pierce, Florida 33450
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19
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Dallai R, Afzelius BA. On zipper-lines or particle arrays within the plasma membrane of hemipteran spermatozoa (Heteroptera, Insecta). JOURNAL OF ULTRASTRUCTURE RESEARCH 1982; 80:197-205. [PMID: 7120538 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5320(82)90018-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Reger JF, Itaya PW, Fitzgerald ME. A thin section and freeze-fracture study on membrane specializations in spermatozoa of the isopod, Armadillidium vulgare. JOURNAL OF ULTRASTRUCTURE RESEARCH 1979; 67:180-93. [PMID: 469986 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5320(79)80006-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Baccetti B, Dallai R. The spermatozoon of arthropoda. XXVII. Uncommon axoneme patterns in different species of the cecidomyid flies. JOURNAL OF ULTRASTRUCTURE RESEARCH 1976; 55:50-69. [PMID: 944274 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5320(76)80081-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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23
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24
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Yasuzumi G. Electron microscope studies on spermiogenesis in various animal species. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CYTOLOGY 1974; 37:53-119. [PMID: 4365424 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7696(08)61357-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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25
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Baccetti B, Burrini A, Dallai R, Pallini V, Periti P, Piantelli F, Rosati F, Selmi G. Structure and function in the spermatozoon of Bacilus rossius. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1973. [DOI: 10.1016/s0889-1605(73)80002-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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26
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Stanley HP, Bowman JT, Romrell LJ, Reed SC, Wilkinson RF. Fine structure of normal spermatid differentiation in Drosophila melanogaster. JOURNAL OF ULTRASTRUCTURE RESEARCH 1972; 41:433-66. [PMID: 4118303 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-5320(72)90049-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Abstract
Cilia, primarily of the lamellibranch gill (Elliptio and Mytilus), have been examined in freeze-etch replicas. Without etching, cross fractures rarely reveal the 9 + 2 pattern, although suggestions of ninefold symmetry are present. In etched preparations, longitudinal fractures through the matrix show a triplet spoke alignment corresponding to the spoke periodicity seen in thin sections. Dynein rows can be visualized along the peripheral microtubules in some preparations. Fracture faces of the ciliary membrane are smooth with few membrane particles, except in the regions adjacent to the basal plate. In the transition region below the plate, a unique particle arrangement, the ciliary necklace, is found. In the Elliptio gill, on fracture face A the necklace is comprised of three well-defined rows or strands of membrane particles that encircle the ciliary shaft. The rows are scalloped and each scallop corresponds to a peripheral doublet microtubule. In thin sections at the level of these particles, a series of champagne-glass structures link the microtubular doublets to the ciliary membrane. The ciliary necklace and this "membrane-microtubule" complex may be involved in energy transduction or the timing of ciliary beat. Comparative studies show that these features are present in all somatic cilia examined including those of the ameboflagellate Tetramitus, sea urchin embryos, rat trachea, and nonmotile cilia of cultured chick embryo fibroblasts. The number of necklace strands differs with each species. The necklace has not been found in rat or sea urchin sperm.
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