The effects of GABA(B) receptor activation on spontaneous and evoked activity in the dentate gyrus of kainic acid-treated rats

Protective effects of lycopene on kainic acid-induced seizures

Lycopene (LCP) is a carotenoid that protects against many diseases by alleviating oxidative stress. However, the effect of LCP on epileptic seizures has not been examined well in previous studies. In the current work, we employed kainic acid (KA) to induce experimental epileptic seizures in mice, and investigated the function of LCP during this process. We found that the onset and extent of KA-induced seizures were alleviated in LCP-pretreated mice. Nissl staining of hippocampus showed that the granule cell dispersion lesion induced by KA was improved by the LCP treatment. Additionally, we analyzed the oxidative stress levels in mice and found that LCP elevated SOD activity and suppressed MDA level in KA-induced seizures. Moreover, the expression of GABA receptors was influenced by LCP treatment. LCP suppressed the upregulation of gabrb2 and gabrb3 induced by KA, whereas it enhanced the expression of gabrb1. Results suggested that LCP plays a protective function in KA-induced seizures. Hence, it may be a potential functional food alternative for controlling and treating epileptic seizures.

R-phenibut binds to the α2-δ subunit of voltage-dependent calcium channels and exerts gabapentin-like anti-nociceptive effects

Phenibut is clinically used anxiolytic, mood elevator and nootropic drug. R-phenibut is responsible for the pharmacological activity of racemic phenibut, and this activity correlates with its binding affinity for GABAB receptors. In contrast, S-phenibut does not bind to GABAB receptors. In this study, we assessed the binding affinities of R-phenibut, S-phenibut, baclofen and gabapentin (GBP) for the α2-δ subunit of the voltage-dependent calcium channel (VDCC) using a subunit-selective ligand, radiolabelled GBP. Binding experiments using rat brain membrane preparations revealed that the equilibrium dissociation constants (Kis) for R-phenibut, S-phenibut, baclofen and GBP were 23, 39, 156 and 0.05μM, respectively. In the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure test, we found that at doses up to 100mg/kg, R-phenibut did not affect PTZ-induced seizures. The anti-nociceptive effects of R-phenibut were assessed using the formalin-induced paw-licking test and the chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve model. Pre-treatment with R-phenibut dose-dependently decreased the nociceptive response during both phases of the test. The anti-nociceptive effects of R-phenibut in the formalin-induced paw-licking test were not blocked by the GABAB receptor-selective antagonist CGP35348. In addition, treatment with R- and S-phenibut alleviated the mechanical and thermal allodynia induced by CCI of the sciatic nerve. Our data suggest that the binding affinity of R-phenibut for the α2-δ subunit of the VDCC is 4 times higher than its affinity for the GABAB receptor. The anti-nociceptive effects of R-phenibut observed in the tests of formalin-induced paw licking and CCI of the sciatic nerve were associated with its effect on the α2-δ subunit of the VDCC rather than with its effects on GABAB receptors. In conclusion, our results provide experimental evidence for GBP-like, anti-nociceptive properties of R-phenibut, which might be used clinically to treat neuropathic pain disorders.

Proconvulsant action of two GABA(B) receptor antagonists is age-dependent

Antagonists of GABA(B) receptors are expected to have proconvulsant action also in developing brain. Two antagonists (CGP55845 and CGP46381) were tested in a model of cortical epileptic afterdischarges (ADs) in 12-, 18- and 25-day-old rat pups with implanted electrodes. CGP55845 was dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide and the results demonstrated marked proconvulsant action of this solvent which masked possible action of the antagonist. Water soluble antagonist CGP46381 led to marked potentiation of ADs in 12-day-old animals, its action decreased with age, it was negligible in 25-day-old rats. Our results demonstrated important inhibitory role of GABA(B) receptors at very early stages of maturation.

Changes in the cannabinoid (CB1) receptor expression level and G-protein activation in kainic acid induced seizures

It has been known for centuries that exogenous cannabinoids, such as tetrahydrocannabinol have anticonvulsant activity. Recent studies have advanced our understanding of the endogenous cannabinoid system and renewed the interest in cannabinoids as a potential treatment for epilepsy. The endogenous cannabinoid system is rapidly activated after seizure activity but still little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of the cannabinoid system in epilepsy. In this study epileptiform activity was induced by kainic acid (KA) and effects of the CB1 receptor agonists N-(2-Chloroethyl)-5Z,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenamide (ACEA) on G-protein signaling using the agonist-stimulated [(35)S]GTPγS binding assay were evaluated. Control and KA treated rat hippocampus and cortex membranes were used. Our results showed that the ACEA displayed a high potency and efficacy in stimulating the G-proteins and when compared to the control animals, significant enhancements were observed in tissues from the KA treated animals. Potency and efficacy values were in particular increased in the hippocampus tissues. Furthermore, gene expression levels of the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) receptor and cannabinoid receptor interacting protein 1 (CRIP1) were measured by RT-PCR, where both CB1 and CRIP1 expressions were found to be elevated in the KA treated animals.

Cannabinoid receptor activation reverses kainate-induced synchronized population burst firing in rat hippocampus

Cannabinoids have been shown to possess anticonvulsant properties in whole animal models of epilepsy. The present investigation sought to examine the effects of cannabinoid receptor activation on kainic acid (KA)-induced epileptiform neuronal excitability. Under urethane anesthesia, acute KA treatment (10 mg kg⁻¹, i.p.) entrained the spiking mode of simultaneously recorded neurons from random firing to synchronous bursting (% change in burst rate). Injection of the high-affinity cannabinoid agonist (-)-11-hydroxy-8-tetrahydrocannabinol-dimethyl-heptyl (HU210, 100 μg kg⁻¹, i.p.) following KA markedly reduced the burst frequency (% decrease in burst frequency) and reversed synchronized firing patterns back to baseline levels. Pre-treatment with the central cannabinoid receptor (CB1) antagonist N-piperidino-5-(4-clorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-3-pyrazole-carboxamide (rimonabant, SR141716A 3 mg kg⁻¹, i.p.) completely prevented the actions of HU210. The present results indicate that cannabinoids exert their antiepileptic effects by impeding pathological synchronization of neuronal networks in the hippocampus.

The CB1 receptor antagonist, SR141716A, prevents high-frequency stimulation-induced reduction of feedback inhibition in the rat dentate gyrus following perforant path stimulation in vivo

Endocannabinoids acting through CB(1) receptors are thought to regulate GABAergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission and may modulate long-term potentiation (LTP). High-frequency stimulation (HFS) of the medial perforant path to induce LTP was studied in the dentate gyrus with or without the selective CB(1) receptor antagonist, SR141716A in isoflurane-anaesthetised rats. HFS significantly increased the slope of the field excitatory post-synaptic potential (fEPSP) and the amplitude of the population spike (PS; P<0.001 in each case; n=6). Following administration of SR141716A, HFS no longer increased fEPSP slope, whereas PS amplitude potentiation remained significant (P<0.0001; n=6). Paired-stimuli revealed that HFS significantly reduced inhibition observed at intervals of 10 ms (P<0.01; n=6), and produced a leftward shift of the interval-inhibition curve (P<0.05; n=6). Following administration of SR141716A, HFS no longer reduced inhibition at the 10 ms interval, but a leftward shift in the interval-inhibition curve was still observed (P<0.05, n=6). These results indicate that LTP in the dentate gyrus reduces local circuit inhibition, consistent with a reduction of GABA release and/or duration of the post-synaptic GABA-receptor mediated response. Selective effects of SR141716A on the degree, but not the timecourse, of paired-pulse inhibition suggest that the reduction in GABA release following LTP induction is due to CB(1) activation. Results also suggest that CB(1) receptors contribute to HFS-induced potentiation of the fEPSP, but not to the mechanism underlying potentiation of PS amplitude. We suggest that CB(1) activation during HFS of the medial perforant path increases glutamate release from perforant path synapses, but inhibits release of GABA from local circuit interneurons.

Anticonvulsant characteristics of pyridoxyl-gamma-aminobutyrate, PL-GABA

GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, and its concentration in the brain in associated with a variety of neurological disorders, including seizures, convulsions, and epilepsy. The concentration of GABA is modulated by the pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzymes, GAD and GABA-T. In this study, we generated pyridoxyl-gamma-aminobutyrate (PL-GABA), a novel GABA analogue composed of pyridoxyl and GABA, and have also characterized its anticonvulsant and pharmacological functions in vitro. The results of biodistribution studies revealed that PL-GABA is capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier. PL-GABA evidenced anticonvulsant activity in a wide range of epilepsy models, some of which were electrically-based (MES seizures) and some chemically-based (bicuculline, pentylenetetrazol (PTZ), picrotoxine, 3-mercaptopropionic acid). Following a timed subcutaneous administration of PTZ to mice, PL-GABA consistently increased the latencies to first twitch and clonus. In addition, PL-GABA displayed no signs of tolerance after subchronic (10 day) treatment. PL-GABA appears to exert its anticonvulsant effects by influencing seizure spread and by raising the seizure threshold. Therefore, our results indicate that PL-GABA exerts a broad-spectrum anticonvulsant effect, and identify the potential for reduced PL-GABA tolerance as an additional positive profile for novel antiepileptic drugs.

Somatostatin in the dentate gyrus

The neuropeptide somatostatin (SST) is expressed in a discrete population of interneurons in the dentate gyrus. These interneurons have their soma in the hilus and project to the outer molecular layer onto dendrites of dentate granule cells, adjacent to perforant path input. SST-containing interneurons are very sensitive to excitotoxicty, and thus are vulnerable to a variety of neurological diseases and insults, including epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, traumatic brain injury, and ischemia. The SST gene contains a prototypical cyclic AMP response element (CRE) site. Such a regulatory site confers activity-dependence to the gene, such that it is turned on when neuronal activity is high. Thus SST expression is increased by pathological conditions such as seizures and by natural stimulation such as environmental enrichment. SST may play an important role in cognition by modulating the response of neurons to synaptic input. In the dentate, SST and the related peptide cortistatin (CST) reduce the likelihood of generating long-term potentiation, a cellular process involved in learning and memory. Thus these neuropeptides would increase the threshold of input required for acquisition of new memories, increasing "signal to noise" to filter out irrelevant environmental cues. The major mechanism through which SST inhibits LTP is likely through inhibition of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels on dentate granule cell dendrites. Transgenic overexpression of CST in the dentate leads to profound deficits in spatial learning and memory, validating its role in cognitive processing. A reduction of synaptic potentiation by SST and CST in dentate may also contribute to the well-characterized antiepileptic properties of these neuropeptides. Thus SST and CST are important neuromodulators in the dentate gyrus, and disruption of this signaling system may have major impact on hippocampal function.

The effect of topiramate on GABAB receptor, vesicular GABA transporter and paired-pulse inhibition in the gerbil hippocampus

To extend our understanding of the properties of topiramate (TPM), we investigated the effect of TPM on GABAergic transmission in the dentate gyrus of gerbil. TPM treatment (> or = 40 mg/kg) dramatically decreased GABA(B)R2, not GABA(B)R1, immunoreactivity in hilar interneurons. In contrast, TPM treatment increased vesicular GABA transporter immunoreactivity and the paired-pulse inhibition in the dentate gyrus of seizure prone gerbils. Furthermore, TPM effectively prevented the reduction of paired-pulse inhibition induced by baclofen treatment. These findings suggest that TPM may enhance GABA release in the dentate gyrus of gerbils by down-regulation of GABA(B) autoreceptor expression. Therefore, these properties of TPM may be another possible antiepileptic effect, which plays an important role in preventing the spread of seizure activity without proconvulsive effects.

Reduced calcium binding protein immunoreactivity induced by electroconvulsive shock indicates neuronal hyperactivity, not neuronal death or deactivation

Calcium-binding proteins (CBPs), such as parvalbumin and calbindin D-28k, are useful markers of specific neuronal types in the CNS. In recent studies, expression of CBPs may be indicative of a deactivated neuronal state, particularly epilepsy. However, it is controversial whether altered expression of CBPs in the hippocampus practically indicate neuronal activity. Therefore, the present study was performed to investigate the extent of profiles of expression of CBPs in the rat hippocampus affected by several episodes induced by electroconvulsive shock. In the present study, following electroconvulsive shock expression of CBPs were reduced in the hippocampus in a stimulus-dependent manner, and recovered to the control level at 6 h after electroconvulsive shock. However, paired-pulse responses of the dentate gyrus were transiently impaired by electroconvulsive shock, and immediately normalized to baseline value. In addition, effects of electroconvulsive shock on expression of CBPs and paired-pulse responses were prevented by pretreatment of vigabatrin. These findings suggest that reduced expression of CBPs induced by seizure activity may be indicative of hyperactivity of CBP positive neurons, which is a practical consequence of the abnormal discharge, and that they may play an important role in regulating seizure activity.

Valproic acid reduces enhanced vesicular glutamate transporter immunoreactivities in the dentate gyrus of the seizure prone gerbil

To elucidate the relationship between glutamatergic current and vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) expressions, we performed the comparative analyses of evoked potentials and VGLUT immunoreactivities in the dentate gyrus, and its response to antiepileptic drug treatments in a gerbil model. The EPSP slope that could be evoked in seizure sensitive (SS) gerbils was significantly greater than in seizure resistant (SR) gerbils. There was also a strong trend towards the larger population spike amplitude in SS gerbils. In addition, VGLUT immunoreactivities were markedly enhanced in the dentate gyrus of SS gerbils, as compared with the SR gerbils. Following valproic acid (VPA, 30 mg/kg), the population spike amplitude and the EPSP slope in response to the stimulus were markedly reduced in the dentate gyri both of SR and of SS gerbils, although this dosage of VPA had no effect in low stimulus currents in SS gerbils. Vigabatrin (VGB) and low dosage of VPA treatment did not affect the evoked responses. Similarly, VPA treatment reduced enhanced VGLUT immunoreactivities in the dentate gyrus of SS gerbils, whilst VGB did not. These findings suggest that up-regulation of VGLUT immunoreactivities may be related to the hyperexcitability of granule cells in SS gerbils, and altered VGLUT immunoreactivity in the dentate gyrus may be independent of GABAergic transmission.

Effects of GABA(B), 5-HT(1A), and 5-HT(2) receptor stimulation on activation and inhibition of the rat lateral amygdala following medial geniculate nucleus stimulation in vivo

The input from the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus (MGN) to the lateral amygdala is known to be important in the regulation of fear and anxiety. Modulation of this pathway may be useful for the treatment of anxiety disorders. We set out to determine whether simple extracellular electrophysiological techniques could be used to study pharmacological modulation of this pathway in vivo. We studied the effects of GABA(B), 5-HT(1), and 5-HT(2) receptor agonists on activity in the lateral amygdala following stimulation of the MGN in isoflurane-anaesthetised rats. Electrical stimulation of the MGN evoked a characteristic biphasic field potential in the lateral amygdala. Baclofen (10 mg kg(-1), iv) inhibited the evoked potential with an effect that was most marked on the positive-going component (80+/-9% inhibition; P<0.05). Baclofen also significantly reduced paired-pulse inhibition of the negative-going component at short interpulse intervals (<200 ms). The 5-HT(1A) receptor ligands, 8-OH-DPAT (60 microg kg(-1), iv) and WAY-100635 (0.5 mg kg(-1), iv) were without effect on evoked responses or paired-pulse relationship. In contrast, the 5-HT(2) receptor agonist, DOI, caused a rapid inhibition of the field potential (to 59.33+/-11.41% of the baseline response; P<0.05). This effect was blocked by ketanserin, either following systemic (0.5 mg kg(-1), iv) or intra-amygdala administration. These results show that GABA(B) and 5-HT(2) receptor agonists can modulate activation of the lateral amygdala following MGN stimulation; furthermore, GABA(B) receptor agonists appear to have a profound effect on local circuit inhibition within the lateral amygdala. The results support the use of in vivo field potential recording within the MGN-lateral amygdala pathway to evaluate this as a possible site of action for novel anxiolytic drugs.

Elevated voltage gated Cl− channel expression enhances fast paired-pulse inhibition in the dentate gyrus of seizure sensitive gerbil

The present study was performed to determine whether the voltage gated Cl- channel (CLC) expression is altered in the hippocampus of seizure sensitive (SS) gerbils, and to identify the strong fast paired-pulse inhibition in the dentate gyrus of SS gerbils is associated with altered CLC expression. In the hippocampal proper and the granule cell layer of the dentate gyrus of the SS gerbils, strong CLC-2 immunoreactivity was detected, as compared with seizure resistant (SR) gerbils. In addition, CLC-3 immunoreactivity was observed in the CA1-3 pyramidal cells, and the granule cell and the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus in the SS gerbils, whereas its immunoreactivity was rarely detected in the SR gerbils. However, CLC-3 immunoreactivity in the mossy fiber was reduced, as compared with SR gerbils. Moreover, infusion of the potential CLC inhibitor (4,4'-diisothiocyanostibene-2,2'-disulfanic acid, DIDS) reduced fast paired-pulse inhibition in the dentate gyrus of SS gerbils, although evoked responses in the dentate gyrus between SR and SS gerbils were similarly detected. These findings suggest that enhancement of CLC expression in the dentate gyrus of SS gerbils may be one of the compensatory responses for reduced GABA(A) receptor-mediated fast postsynaptic inhibitory potentials.

Lamina-specific differences in GABA(B) autoreceptor-mediated regulation of spontaneous GABA release in rat entorhinal cortex

Spontaneous synaptic inhibition plays an important role in regulating the excitability of cortical networks. Here we have investigated the role of GABA(B) autoreceptors in regulating spontaneous GABA release in the entorhinal cortex (EC), a region associated with temporal lobe epilepsies. We have previously shown that the level of spontaneous inhibition in superficial layers of the EC is much greater than that seen in deeper layers. In the present study, using intracellular and whole cell patch clamp recordings in rat EC slices, we have demonstrated that evoked GABA responses are controlled by feedback inhibition via GABA(B) autoreceptors. Furthermore, recordings of spontaneous, activity-independent inhibitory postsynaptic currents in layer II and layer V neurones showed that the GABA(B) receptor agonist, baclofen, reduced the frequency of GABA-mediated currents indicating the presence of presynaptic GABA(B) receptors in both layers. Application of the antagonist, CGP55845, blocked the effects of baclofen and also increased the frequency of GABA-mediated events above baseline, but the latter effect was restricted to layer V. This demonstrates that GABA(B) autoreceptors are tonically activated by synaptically released GABA in layer V, and this may partly explain the lower level of spontaneous GABA release in the deep layer.

Rapid and long-term alterations of hippocampal GABAB receptors in a mouse model of temporal lobe epilepsy

Alterations of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)B receptor expression have been reported in human temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Here, changes in regional and cellular expression of the GABAB receptor subunits R1 (GBR1) and R2 (GBR2) were investigated in a mouse model that replicates major functional and histopathological features of TLE. Adult mice received a single, unilateral injection of kainic acid (KA) into the dorsal hippocampus, and GABAB receptor immunoreactivity was analysed between 1 day and 3 months thereafter. In control mice, GBR1 and GBR2 were distributed uniformly across the dendritic layers of CA1-CA3 and dentate gyrus. In addition, some interneurons were labelled selectively for GBR1. At 1 day post-KA, staining for both GBR1 and GBR2 was profoundly reduced in CA1, CA3c and the hilus, and no interneurons were visible anymore. At later stages, the loss of GABAB receptors persisted in CA1 and CA3, whereas staining increased gradually in dentate gyrus granule cells, which become dispersed in this model. Most strikingly, a subpopulation of strongly labelled interneurons reappeared, mainly in the hilus and CA3 starting at 1 week post-KA. In double-staining experiments, these cells were selectively labelled for neuropeptide Y. The number of GBR1-positive interneurons also increased contralaterally in the hilus. The rapid KA-induced loss of GABAB receptors might contribute to epileptogenesis because of a reduction in both presynaptic control of transmitter release and postsynaptic inhibition. In turn, the long-term increase in GABAB receptors in granule cells and specific subtypes of interneurons may represent a compensatory response to recurrent seizures.

Oral baclofen in cerebral palsy: possible seizure potentiation?

Baclofen, a gamma-aminobutyric acid agonist, is widely used to treat spasticity of cerebral and spinal origin. Patients with both acute baclofen overdose and withdrawal have developed seizures. After several reports of new-onset seizures in children treated with oral baclofen at our institution, we reviewed our experience regarding possible effects of baclofen on seizure induction in a childhood movement disorders program over a 2-year period. Of 54 children (ages 1-10) treated with oral baclofen, 19 (35%) had a prior history of seizures. Five children (14%) developed new-onset seizures after starting baclofen. Although epilepsy is very common in children with cerebral palsy, these findings raise the possibility that baclofen may potentiate seizures in certain young children with cerebral palsy. Further study of the effects of baclofen on seizures is warranted.