The development of eating behavior in childhood

Different Eating Habits Are Observed in Overweight and Obese Children Than in Normal-Weight Peers

BACKGROUND

Obesity is diagnosed in 13.6% of early primary school children in Poland. Its presence at this age increases the risk of obesity occurrence in adulthood. Therefore, it is important to properly shape eating behaviors at the stage of childhood and identify incorrect eating styles.

METHODS

This study aimed to investigate whether overweight and obese children differ significantly from children with normal body weights in terms of their eating styles. For the materials and methods, 43 mothers of overweight or obese children aged 3-10 years and 88 mothers of normal-weight children aged 3-10 years completed a questionnaire related to sociodemographic factors and the Children's Eating Behaviour Questionnaire.

RESULTS

The overweight and obese children, compared with normal-weight children, scored higher on the food responsiveness (p = 0.009) and emotional overeating (p = 0.013) scales and lower on the satiety responsiveness (p = 0.025) and slowness in eating scales (p < 0.0001). No significant difference was found for other subscales between the studied groups. In the group of overweight and obese children, the child's age correlated negatively with enjoyment of food, as did the mother's BMI with slowness in eating.

CONCLUSIONS

The results indicate the presence of significant differences in eating styles between normal-weight children and overweight or obese children. Identifying families at high risk of inappropriate eating behaviors and educating them appropriately can reduce the risk of children becoming overweight or obese.

Infant temperament and mealtime distractions as predictors of preschool Children's bite speed during family mealtime

Eating behaviors are shaped at an early age, persist into adulthood, and are implicated in the development of physical health outcomes, including obesity. Faster bite speed has been identified as an obesogenic eating behavior, prompting researchers to examine child and family factors associated with children's variability in bite speed. Child temperament, involving phenotypes of reactivity and regulation, and distractions in family food contexts are fruitful areas of investigation, but few studies have examined the interplay among these factors and their associations with bite speed. To address the gap in the literature, we examined relations between early child temperament, family mealtime distractions, and children's observed bite speed. Caregiver report of child temperament at 3 months was measured using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire Very Short Form - Revised. Child mealtime distractions and bite speed were assessed using family mealtime videos that were collected during home visits when children were 18-24 months of age (n = 109). Results revealed that children who were reported to be higher on orienting/regulation at 3 months, and who were more distracted during mealtimes at 18-24 months, had relatively slower bite speeds. No significant interactions were found. The findings from this correlational study inform further investigations into the implications of early temperament and food contexts for the development of eating behaviors implicated in obesity risk.

Dietary Habits and Choices of 4-to-6-Year-Olds: Do Children Have a Preference for Sweet Taste?

Children develop food preferences by coming into direct contact with various food products through the senses of taste, touch, sight and smell. The aim of this study was to analyze the food preferences of children aged 4 to 6 years and to determine whether age and gender influence children’s food preferences and whether the preference for sweet taste changes with age. The study involved a paper questionnaire containing images of 115 different food products and dishes. The respondents expressed their preferences by choosing the appropriate emoji (happy, sad or neutral face). The study was conducted between 2018 and 2020, and it involved 684 children from 10 kindergartens. Girls chose a significantly higher number of foods and dishes they liked than boys (p = 0.002), and 4-year-olds gave a higher number of “neutral” responses than 5- and 6-year-olds (p = 0.001). Dietary diversity increased with age, and younger children were familiar with fewer foods than 6-year-olds (p = 0.002). Children had a clear preference for sweet taste, regardless of age and gender. Young children (4-year-olds) were more likely to accept healthy foods despite the fact that they were familiar with fewer products and dishes.

How Infants and Young Children Learn About Food: A Systematic Review

Early childhood is a critical time for establishing food preferences and dietary habits. In order for appropriate advice to be available to parents and healthcare professionals it is essential for researchers to understand the ways in which children learn about foods. This review summarizes the literature relating to the role played by known developmental learning processes in the establishment of early eating behavior, food preferences and general knowledge about food, and identifies gaps in our knowledge that remain to be explored. A systematic literature search identified 48 papers exploring how young children learn about food from the start of complementary feeding to 36 months of age. The majority of the papers focus on evaluative components of children's learning about food, such as their food preferences, liking and acceptance. A smaller number of papers focus on other aspects of what and how children learn about food, such as a food's origins or appropriate eating contexts. The review identified papers relating to four developmental learning processes: (1) Familiarization to a food through repeated exposure to its taste, texture or appearance. This was found to be an effective technique for learning about foods, especially for children at the younger end of our age range. (2) Observational learning of food choice. Imitation of others' eating behavior was also found to play an important role in the first years of life. (3) Associative learning through flavor-nutrient and flavor-flavor learning (FFL). Although the subject of much investigation, conditioning techniques were not found to play a major role in shaping the food preferences of infants in the post-weaning and toddler periods. (4) Categorization of foods. The direct effects of the ability to categorize foods have been little studied in this age group. However, the literature suggests that what infants are willing to consume depends on their ability to recognize items on their plate as familiar exemplars of that food type.

The short-term effects of soft pellets on lipogenesis and insulin sensitivity in rats

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the short-term effects of a 12-day, soft pellet (SP) diet with a 3-h restricted feeding schedule on caloric intake, body weight, lipid metabolism, and insulin sensitivity. Glucose and insulin levels were measured pre-, mid-, and post-feeding. The SP rats exhibited postprandial hyperglycemia compared to rats fed control pellets (CP). The insulin response of SP rats during a meal was significantly higher than that of CP rats. There were no significant differences in the hepatic triacylglycerol contents and lipogenesis gene mRNA levels of SP and CP rats. However, the hepatocytes of SP rats were slightly hypertrophic. In addition, histological analysis revealed that the pancreases of SP rats had more islet areas than those of CP rats. This study demonstrated that feeding an SP-only diet for 12 days induces glucose intolerance, suggesting that the consumption of absorbable food, like a soft diet, may trigger glucose metabolism insufficiency and lead to life-threatening diseases.

Eating fast leads to insulin resistance: findings in middle-aged Japanese men and women

OBJECTIVE

To examine relationships between speed of eating and insulin resistance.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study of 2704 male (mean age and BMI: 48.2 y and 23.3 kg/m(2)) and 761 female (46.3 y and 21.8 kg/m(2)) non-diabetic Japanese civil servants, 75% clerical, and 25% manual laborers, using a two-part questionnaire on life-style factors and diet history with self-assessment of categorical speed of eating and energy intake over a 1-month period. We measured BMI, blood glucose and insulin concentrations and calculated insulin resistance using the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance: (HOMA-IR).

RESULTS

BMI correlated with eating rate in both sexes, and with daily energy intake in men. Multiple regression analysis of log HOMA-IR by categorical speed of eating, adjusting for age, energy intake and lifestyle factors showed a statistically significant gradual increase in HOMA-IR with increases in relative eating rate in men (p<0.001, for trend) and in women (p<0.01). Adjusting for BMI, this positive relationship appeared only in men (p=0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that eating fast is independently associated with insulin resistance in middle-aged Japanese men and women.

Eating fast leads to obesity: findings based on self-administered questionnaires among middle-aged Japanese men and women

BACKGROUND

Few epidemiologic studies have examined the association between the rate of eating and obesity. In this study, we cross-sectionally examined the association of the self-reported rate of eating with current Body Mass Index (BMI), and BMI-change from 20 years of age to the current age.

METHODS

Subjects were 3737 male (mean age +/- standard deviation and mean BMI +/- standard deviation: 48.2 +/- 7.1 years and 23.3 +/- 2.7 kg/m(2)) and 1005 female (46.3 +/- 7.0 years and 21.8 +/- 2.8 kg/m(2)) Japanese civil servants. We measured self-reported categorical rate of eating, current BMI, BMI at age 20, and BMI-change from age 20. Energy intake was assessed over a 1-month period with a brief-type diet history questionnaire.

RESULTS

The multiple regression analysis in which the current BMI was regressed by categorical rate of eating, energy intake, age, and lifestyle factors showed that current BMI steadily increased by -0.99, -0.67, 0.81, and 1.47 kg/m(2) along with the progress of categorical rate of eating from the 'medium' group to 'very slow', 'relatively slow', 'relatively fast', and 'very fast' groups, respectively, in men. In women, the corresponding values were -1.06, -0.35, 0.50, and 1.34 kg/m(2). When the BMI increment from age 20 to current age was regressed in the same manner, the increment was -0.63, -0.34, 0.57, and 1.05 kg/m(2) in men and -0.71, -0.32, 0.34, and 1.14 kg/m(2) in women, respectively. Additionally, both BMI at age 20 and current height were positively associated with rate of eating.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results among middle-aged men and women suggest that eating fast would lead to obesity.

Growth, energy intake, and meal pattern in five-year-old children considered as poor eaters

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether 5-year-old children considered poor eaters differ from their peers regarding growth, intake of energy and nutrients, or meal pattern. Study design Parental evaluations of children's (n=494) eating at age 5 years were collected using questionnaires, and energy and nutrient intakes and meal pattern of the children were assessed using 4-day food records. Weight and height were measured at birth and at ages 7 and 13 months, and 2, 3, 4, and 5 years. Of the children 30.2% (149) were poor eaters according to the parents. The rest of the sample (n=345) formed the comparison group.

RESULTS

Poor eaters were on average lighter and shorter at birth (P=.026 and P=.020, respectively), and at age 5 years (P<.001 for both weight and height) than the comparison children. At age 5 years the poor eaters on average received less of their daily total energy from warm meals (P=.044) and more from snacks (P=.013) than the comparison group, but the mean daily weight-adjusted intake of energy showed no difference between the groups (P=.153).

CONCLUSIONS

There appears not to be reason for serious concern about growth and diet of preschool-aged children considered as poor eaters by parents.

Healthy eating for rural low-income toddlers: caregivers' perceptions

Caregivers exert a powerful influence on young children's eating habits. This qualitative study used focus groups to assess nutritional needs and barriers in establishing healthy eating habits in toddlers. Three focus groups were conducted with rural, low-income caregivers, 2 with men and 1 with women, in 3 rural Michigan counties. Four major themes emerged: (a) barriers to providing healthy meals, (b) division of responsibility, (c) mealtime behavior, and (d) desired nutrition education. The major barriers identified were work schedules; cost of food; inadequate time to shop, plan, and prepare nutritious meals; or a combination thereof. Caregivers expressed concern for the nutritional well-being of their toddlers. The perceived needs and perceptions of low-income caregivers need to be considered when providing nutrition education. Findings from this study provided the basis for developing a nutrition education intervention for low-income parents of young children.

Considerations in planning vegan diets: children

This article reviews research on the growth and nutrient intake of vegan children and provides guidelines for counselling parents of vegan children. Although diets of vegan children meet or exceed recommendations for most nutrients, and vegan children have higher intakes of fiber and lower intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol than omnivore children, some studies indicate that they may be low in calcium. In addition, bioavailability of zinc and iron from plant foods can be low. Protein needs are slightly higher for vegan children but are easily met with a varied diet that provides adequate energy. Special attention should be given to dietary practices that enhance absorption of zinc and iron from plant foods. Further, good sources of the omega-3 fatty acid linolenic acid should be emphasized to enhance synthesis of the long-chain fatty acid docosahexanoic acid. Dietetics professionals who counsel vegan families should help parents identify good sources of vitamin B-12, riboflavin, zinc, calcium and, if sun exposure is not adequate, vitamin D. This should not be problematic, due to the growing number and availability of fortified vegan foods that can help children meet all nutrient needs. Therefore, with appropriate food choices, vegan diets can be adequate for children at all ages.

Imipramine and diet counseling with psychological support in the treatment of obese binge eaters: a randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind study

OBJECTIVE

This study with 31 obese binge eaters (body mass index [BMI] 39.5+/-8.6 kg/m(2) [SD]) was designed to assess whether diet counseling with psychological support and imipramine or placebo has an effect on the frequency of binge eating, body weight, and depression during an 8-week treatment phase. This was followed by an open medication-free phase of 6 months of continuous diet counseling with psychological support.

METHODS

Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study of 8 weeks followed by an open phase of 6 months. Patients were evaluated in medical visits by a semistructured videotaped interview, psychometric questionnaires, and hematochemical parameters.

RESULTS

From Week 0 to 8, a significant reduction in binge frequency occurred in both treatment conditions (7.1+/-4.1 to 2.8+/-3.0 binges per week [imipramine] vs. 7.1+/-4.1 to 5.4+/-5.1 [placebo], p<.01). Patients on imipramine lost -2.2+/-1.8 kg compared to placebo-treated subjects (+0.2+/-3.3 kg, p<.001). On follow-up, only the patients initially treated with imipramine continued to lose weight (-5.1+/-2.8 kg [imipramine] vs. 2.2+/-6.8 kg [placebo], p<.001 [differences to Week 0]). While both treatment conditions were associated with significant improvements on a rater's measure of depressive symptoms (Hamilton Depression Scale) at Week 8, only the patients treated with imipramine still showed a significant improvement at Week 32. Scores on the Self Depression Rating Scale did not show a group difference but a significant reduction at Weeks 8 and 32, compared to baseline.

DISCUSSION

These results suggest that adding low-dose imipramine to diet counseling with psychological support helps patients losing weight even for at least 6 months off medication. The effect might include a psychological priming of weight loss during the double-blind phase that continues at least for half a year after stopping the drug.