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Freitas CDT, Demarco D, Oliveira JS, Ramos MV. Review: Laticifer as a plant defense mechanism. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2024; 346:112136. [PMID: 38810884 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2024.112136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Laticifers have been utilized as paradigms to enhance comprehension of specific facets of plant ecology and evolution. From the beginning of seedling growth, autonomous laticifer networks are formed throughout the plant structure, extending across all tissues and organs. The vast majority of identified products resulting from laticifer chemistry and metabolism are linked to plant defense. The latex, which is the fluid contained within laticifers, is maintained under pressure and has evolved to serve as a defense mechanism against both aggressors and invaders, irrespective of their capabilities or tactics. Remarkably, the latex composition varies among different species. The current goal is to understand the specific functions of various latex components in combating plant enemies. Therefore, the study of latex's chemical composition and proteome plays a critical role in advancing our understanding about plant defense mechanisms. Here, we will discuss some of these aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cleverson D T Freitas
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara. Campus do Pici, Bloco 907, Fortaleza, Ceará CEP 60451-970, Brazil.
| | - Diego Demarco
- Department of Botany, Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Jefferson S Oliveira
- Federal University of Delta of Parnaíba, Campus Ministro Reis Velloso, Parnaíba, PI, Brazil
| | - Márcio V Ramos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Ceara. Campus do Pici, Bloco 907, Fortaleza, Ceará CEP 60451-970, Brazil.
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Takashima T, Henna H, Kozome D, Kitajima S, Uechi K, Taira T. cDNA cloning, expression, and antifungal activity of chitinase from Ficus microcarpa latex: difference in antifungal action of chitinase with and without chitin-binding domain. PLANTA 2021; 253:120. [PMID: 33987712 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-021-03639-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A chitin-binding domain could contribute to the antifungal ability of chitinase through its affinity to the fungal lateral wall by hydrophobic interactions. Complementary DNA encoding the antifungal chitinase of gazyumaru (Ficus microcarpa), designated GlxChiB, was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli cells. The results of cDNA cloning showed that the precursor of GlxChiB has an N-terminal endoplasmic reticulum targeting signal and C-terminal vacuolar targeting signal, whereas mature GlxChiB is composed of an N-terminal carbohydrate-binding module family-18 domain (CBM18) and a C-terminal glycoside hydrolase family-19 domain (GH19) with a short linker. To clarify the role of the CBM18 domain in the antifungal activity of chitinase, the recombinant GlxChiB (wild type) and its catalytic domain (CatD) were used in quantitative antifungal assays under different ionic strengths and microscopic observations against the fungus Trichoderma viride. The antifungal activity of the wild type was stronger than that of CatD under all ionic strength conditions used in this assay; however, the antifungal activity of CatD became weaker with increasing ionic strength, whereas that of the wild type was maintained. The results at high ionic strength further verified the contribution of the CBM18 domain to the antifungal ability of GlxChiB. The microscopic observations clearly showed that the wild type acted on both the tips and the lateral wall of fungal hyphae, while CatD acted only on the tips. These results suggest that the CBM18 domain could contribute to the antifungal ability of chitinase through its affinity to the fungal lateral wall by hydrophobic interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoya Takashima
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0213, Japan
| | - Hajime Henna
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0213, Japan
| | - Dan Kozome
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0213, Japan
- Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, 904-0412, Japan
| | - Sakihito Kitajima
- Department of Applied Biology, Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, 606-8585, Japan
| | - Keiko Uechi
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0213, Japan
| | - Toki Taira
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0213, Japan.
- Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, 890-8580 , Japan.
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Freitas CDT, Viana CA, Vasconcelos IM, Moreno FBB, Lima-Filho JV, Oliveira HD, Moreira RA, Monteiro-Moreira ACO, Ramos MV. First insights into the diversity and functional properties of chitinases of the latex of Calotropis procera. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2016; 108:361-371. [PMID: 27521700 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/31/2016] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Chitinases (EC 3.2.1.14) found in the latex of Calotropis procera (Ait) R. Br. were studied. The proteins were homogeneously obtained after two ion exchange chromatography steps. Most proteins were identified individually in 15 spots on 2-D gel electrophoresis with isoelectric points ranging from 4.6 to 6.0 and molecular masses extending from 27 to 30 kDa. Additionally, 66 kDa proteins were identified as chitinases in SDS-PAGE. Their identities were further confirmed by mass spectrometry (MS) analysis of the tryptic digests of each spot and MS analysis of the non-digested proteins. Positive reaction for Schiff's reagent suggested the proteins are glycosylated. The chitinases exhibited high catalytic activity toward to colloidal chitin at pH 5.0, and this activity underwent decay in the presence of increasing amounts of reducing agent dithiothreitol. Spore germination and hyphae growth of two phytopathogenic fungi were inhibited only marginally by the chitinases but were affected differently. This suggested a complex relationship might exist between the specificity of the proteins toward the fungal species. The chitinases showed potent insecticidal activity against the Bruchidae Callosobruchus maculatus, drastically reducing survival, larval weight and adult emergence. It is concluded that closely related chitinases are present in the latex of C. procera, and the first experimental evidence suggests these proteins are involved more efficiently in defence strategies against insects rather than fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cleverson D T Freitas
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular da Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Cx. Postal 6033, Fortaleza, CE CEP 60451-970, Brazil.
| | - Carolina A Viana
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular da Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Cx. Postal 6033, Fortaleza, CE CEP 60451-970, Brazil
| | - Ilka M Vasconcelos
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular da Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Cx. Postal 6033, Fortaleza, CE CEP 60451-970, Brazil
| | - Frederico B B Moreno
- Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade de Fortaleza (UNIFOR), Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - José V Lima-Filho
- Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Hermogenes D Oliveira
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular da Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Cx. Postal 6033, Fortaleza, CE CEP 60451-970, Brazil
| | - Renato A Moreira
- Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade de Fortaleza (UNIFOR), Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | | | - Márcio V Ramos
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular da Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Cx. Postal 6033, Fortaleza, CE CEP 60451-970, Brazil.
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Campillo-Alvarado G, Tovar-Miranda R. Recent advances and applications of the lipolytic activity of Carica papaya latex. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2013.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Zare H, Moosavi-Movahedi AA, Salami M, Mirzaei M, Saboury AA, Sheibani N. Purification and autolysis of the ficin isoforms from fig (Ficus carica cv. Sabz) latex. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2013; 87:16-22. [PMID: 23312458 PMCID: PMC3755362 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2012.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Revised: 12/05/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Ficin (EC 3.4.22.3), a cysteine endoproteolytic protease in fig trees' latex, has multiple isoforms. Until now, no data on autolysis of individual ficins (ficin isoforms) are available. Following purification, ficins' autolysis was determined by HPLC chromatogram changes and ultrafiltrations at different temperatures and storage times. These results showed that the number of HPLC peaks in latex proteins purification of Ficus carica cv. Sabz varied from previous fig varieties or cultivars. Proteolytic activity of ficins was inhibited by specific cysteine protease inhibitors, confirming the participation of the cysteine residue in the active site. The zeta potential of the first two eluted peaks (I and II) was negative, while that of other peaks were positive. All ficins were susceptible to autolysis when stored at high temperatures. In contrast, only the last two ficins (B, C) were prone to autolysis at cold temperature after long storage period. The rate of degradation of the ficins was significantly increased with the increased storage time. The ficin (A) related to peak (III) had the highest and the lowest surface hydrophobic patches and ratio of autolytic to proteolytic activity, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamid Zare
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics (IBB), University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Akbar Moosavi-Movahedi
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics (IBB), University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
- Center of Excellence in Biothermodynamics (CEBiotherm), University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
- Corresponding author at: Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics (IBB), University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. Tel.: +98 21 6640 3957; fax: +98 21 6640 4680. , (A.A. Moosavi-Movahedi)
| | - Maryam Salami
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics (IBB), University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Morteza Mirzaei
- Applied Biotechnology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences (BMSU), Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Akbar Saboury
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics (IBB), University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
- Center of Excellence in Biothermodynamics (CEBiotherm), University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nader Sheibani
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
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Chen LC, Chung YC, Chang CT. Characterisation of an acidic peroxidase from papaya (Carica papaya L. cv Tainung No. 2) latex and its application in the determination of micromolar hydrogen peroxide in milk. Food Chem 2012; 135:2529-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.06.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2012] [Revised: 06/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Vasu P, Savary BJ, Cameron RG. Purification and characterization of a papaya (Carica papaya L.) pectin methylesterase isolated from a commercial papain preparation. Food Chem 2012; 133:366-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2011] [Revised: 11/14/2011] [Accepted: 01/16/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Azarkan M, Matagne A, Wattiez R, Bolle L, Vandenameele J, Baeyens-Volant D. Selective and reversible thiol-pegylation, an effective approach for purification and characterization of five fully active ficin (iso)forms from Ficus carica latex. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2011; 72:1718-1731. [PMID: 21665232 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2011.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2011] [Revised: 05/13/2011] [Accepted: 05/16/2011] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The latex of Ficus carica constitutes an important source of many proteolytic components known under the general term of ficin (EC 3.4.22.3) which belongs to the cysteine proteases of the papain family. So far, no data on the purification and characterization of individual forms of these proteases are available. An effective strategy was used to fractionate and purify to homogeneity five ficin forms, designated A, B, C, D1 and D2 according to their sequence of elution from a cation-exchange chromatographic support. Following rapid fractionation on a SP-Sepharose Fast Flow column, the different ficin forms were chemically modified by a specific and reversible monomethoxypolyethylene glycol (mPEG) reagent. In comparison with their un-derivatized counterparts, the mPEG-protein derivatives behaved differently on the ion-exchanger, allowing us for the first time to obtain five highly purified ficin molecular species titrating 1mol of thiol group per mole of enzyme. The purified ficins were characterized by de novo peptide sequencing and peptide mass fingerprinting analyzes, using mass spectrometry. Circular dichroism measurements indicated that all five ficins were highly structured, both in term of secondary and tertiary structure. Furthermore, analysis of far-UV CD spectra allowed calculation of their secondary structural content. Both these data and the molecular masses determined by MS reinforce the view that the enzymes belong to the family of papain-like proteases. The five ficin forms also displayed different specific amidase activities against small synthetic substrates like dl-BAPNA and Boc-Ala-Ala-Gly-pNA, suggesting some differences in their active site organization. Enzymatic activity of the five ficin forms was completely inhibited by specific cysteine and cysteine/serine proteases inhibitors but was unaffected by specific serine, aspartic and metallo proteases inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Azarkan
- Free University of Brussels, Faculty of Medicine, Protein Chemistry Unit, Campus Erasme (CP 609), 808 Route de Lennik, 1070 Brussels, Belgium.
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Ramos MV, Araújo ES, Oliveira RSB, Teixeira FM, Pereira DA, Cavalheiro MG, Souza DP, Oliveira JS, Freitas CDTD. Latex fluids are endowed with insect repellent activity not specifically related to their proteins or volatile substances. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1590/s1677-04202011000100008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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10
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Dhouib R, Laroche-Traineau J, Shaha R, Lapaillerie D, Solier E, Rualès J, Pina M, Villeneuve P, Carrière F, Bonneu M, Arondel V. Identification of a putative triacylglycerol lipase from papaya latex by functional proteomics. FEBS J 2010; 278:97-110. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2010.07936.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Juncker T, Schumacher M, Dicato M, Diederich M. UNBS1450 from Calotropis procera as a regulator of signaling pathways involved in proliferation and cell death. Biochem Pharmacol 2009; 78:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2009.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2008] [Revised: 01/21/2009] [Accepted: 01/29/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Freitas CDT, Oliveira JS, Miranda MRA, Macedo NMR, Sales MP, Villas-Boas LA, Ramos MV. Enzymatic activities and protein profile of latex from Calotropis procera. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2007; 45:781-9. [PMID: 17888673 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2007.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Accepted: 07/25/2007] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The laticifer fluid of Calotropis procera is rich in proteins and there is evidence that they are involved in the pharmacological properties of the latex. However, not much is known about how the latex-containing proteins are produced or their functions. In this study, laticifer proteins of C. procera were pooled and examined by 1D and 2D electrophoresis, masses spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) and characterized in respect of proteolytic activity and oxidative enzymes. Soluble laticifer proteins were predominantly composed of basic proteins (PI>6.0) with molecular masses varying between 5 and 95 kDa. Proteins with a molecular mass of approximately 26,000 Da were more evident. Strong anti-oxidative activity of superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1) (1007.74+/-91.89 Ug(-1)DM) and, to a lesser extent ascorbate peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.1) (0.117(d)+/-0.013 microMol H(2)O(2)g(-1)min(-1)), were detected. However, catalase (EC 1.11.1.6) was absent. The strong proteolytic activities of laticifer proteins from C. procera were shown to be shared by at least four distinct cysteine proteinases (EC 3.4.22.16) that were isolated by gel filtration chromatography. Serine and metaloproteinases were not detected and aspartic proteinase activities were barely visible. Chitinases (EC 3.2.1.14) were also isolated in a chitin column and their activities quantified. The presence of these enzymatic activities in latex from C. procera may confirm their involvement in resistance to phytopathogens and insects, mainly in its leaves where the latex circulates abundantly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cleverson Diniz T Freitas
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular da Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Cx. Postal 6033, Fortaleza, Ceará CEP 60451-970, Brazil
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Soares de Oliveira J, Pereira Bezerra D, Teixeira de Freitas CD, Delano Barreto Marinho Filho J, Odorico de Moraes M, Pessoa C, Costa-Lotufo LV, Ramos MV. In vitro cytotoxicity against different human cancer cell lines of laticifer proteins of Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. Toxicol In Vitro 2007; 21:1563-73. [PMID: 17604595 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2007.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2007] [Revised: 05/09/2007] [Accepted: 05/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This work evaluated the in vitro cytotoxic activity of laticifer proteins (LP) recovered from the latex of the medicinal plant Calotropis procera. The LP displayed considerable cytotoxicity with IC(50) values ranging from 0.42 to 1.36 microg/ml to SF295 and MDA-MB-435 cell lines, respectively. In healthy peripheral blood mononuclear cells exposed to LP (10 microg/ml) for 72 h, no noticeable effects on viability or cell morphology were seen. The fractionating of LP on an ion exchange chromatography gave rise to a new fraction (PI) that retained almost all cytotoxicity. The cytotoxic effects of both LP and PI were diminished when previously treated with pronase, or 2-mercaptoethanol, suggesting a protein nature of active molecules, however, pre-incubation with dithiothreitol (DTT) only reduced PI activity. PI did not exhibit cysteine proteinase activity, indicating that cysteine proteinases, abundantly found in LP, are not implicated in LP cytotoxicity. In this study, using HL-60 cell as a model, LP was shown to inhibit DNA synthesis. This is probably due to alterations in the topology of DNA, since it was observed that LP is able to interfere in topoisomerase I activity by somehow acting upon DNA. LP provoked reduction in cell number but it did not cause any significant increase in the number of non-viable cells. These findings corroborated with the morphologic analysis, where cells treated with LP showed morphology of apoptotic process with abundant vacuoles, chromatin condensation and fragmentation of the nuclei. The results of this study suggests that LP is a target for DNA topoisomerase I triggering apoptosis in cancer cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jefferson Soares de Oliveira
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, Caixa Postal 6033, CEP 60.451-970, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil
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Chen YT, Hsu LH, Huang IP, Tsai TC, Lee GC, Shaw JF. Gene cloning and characterization of a novel recombinant antifungal chitinase from papaya (Carica papaya). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2007; 55:714-22. [PMID: 17263465 DOI: 10.1021/jf062453e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
A chitinase cDNA clone (CpCHI, 1002 bp) was isolated from papaya fruit, which encoded a 275 amino acid protein containing a 28 amino acid signal peptide in the N-terminal end. The predicted molecular mass of the mature protein was 26.2 kDa, and its pI value was 6.32. On the basis of its amino acid sequence homology with other plant chitinases, it was classified as a class IV chitinase. An active recombinant CpCHI enzyme was overexpressed in Escherichia coli. The purified recombinant papaya chitinase showed an optimal reaction temperature at 30 degrees C and a broad optimal pH ranging from 5.0 to 9.0. The recombinant enzyme was quite stable, retaining >64% activity for 3 weeks at 30 degrees C. The spore germination of Alternaria brassicicola could be completely inhibited by a 76 nM level of recombinant CpCHI. Recombinant CpCHI also showed antibacterial activity in which 50% of E. coli was inhibited by a 2.5 microM concentration of the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Ting Chen
- Biotechnology Center and Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, National Chung-Hsing University, 250 Kuo Kuang Road, Taichung, Taiwan 402
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McCafferty HRK, Moore PH, Zhu YJ. Improved Carica papaya Tolerance to Carmine Spider Mite by the Expression of Manduca sexta chitinase Transgene. Transgenic Res 2006; 15:337-47. [PMID: 16779649 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-006-0005-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2005] [Accepted: 01/26/2006] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Papaya plants producing the tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta) chitinase protein were obtained following microprojectile bombardment of embryogenic calli derived from the hypocotyls of the cultivar Kapoho. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out to confirm the presence of the transgene. RT-PCR and a quantitative chitinase assay showed increased levels of chitinase activity in every selected transgenic line. Insect bioassays in the laboratory showed that plants expressing the Manduca sexta chitinase gene significantly inhibited multiplication of carmine spider mites (Tetranychus cinnabarinus Boisd.). Experiments conducted to evaluate reaction of the transgenic plants to natural infection by carmine spider mites showed that the Manduca sexta chitinase gene provided increased tolerance under field conditions.
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Azarkan M, Dibiani R, Baulard C, Baeyens-Volant D. Effects of mechanical wounding on Carica papaya cysteine endopeptidases accumulation and activity. Int J Biol Macromol 2006; 38:216-24. [PMID: 16580724 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2006.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2005] [Revised: 02/17/2006] [Accepted: 02/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The mechanical wounding impact on the Carica papaya latex protein pattern was investigated by analyzing three latexes. A first one commercially available, a second harvested from unripe but fully grown fruits, both obtained from regularly tapped fruits. A third one was collected from similar fruits but wounded for the first time. The results demonstrated both quantitative and qualitative changes in the protein content and in the enzymatic activity. Repeated wounding results in either, accumulation or activation (or both of them) of papain, chymopapain and caricain. Furthermore, new cysteine protease activity was found to transiently accumulate in the latex collected from newly wounded fruits. The possible implication of this enzymatic material in the papaya cysteine endopeptidases pro-forms activation is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Azarkan
- University of Brussels, Faculty of Medicine, Protein Chemistry Unit, Campus Erasme CP 609, 808, route de Lennik, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium.
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Konno K, Hirayama C, Nakamura M, Tateishi K, Tamura Y, Hattori M, Kohno K. Papain protects papaya trees from herbivorous insects: role of cysteine proteases in latex. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2004; 37:370-8. [PMID: 14731257 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.2003.01968.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Many plants contain latex that exudes when leaves are damaged, and a number of proteins and enzymes have been found in it. The roles of those latex proteins and enzymes are as yet poorly understood. We found that papain, a cysteine protease in latex of the Papaya tree (Carica papaya, Caricaceae), is a crucial factor in the defense of the papaya tree against lepidopteran larvae such as oligophagous Samia ricini (Saturniidae) and two notorious polyphagous pests, Mamestra brassicae (Noctuidae) and Spodoptera litura (Noctuidae). Leaves of a number of laticiferous plants, including papaya and a wild fig, Ficus virgata (Moraceae), showed strong toxicity and growth inhibition against lepidopteran larvae, though no apparent toxic factors from these species have been reported. When the latex was washed off, the leaves of these lactiferous plants lost toxicity. Latexes of both papaya and the wild fig were rich in cysteine-protease activity. E-64, a cysteine protease-specific inhibitor, completely deprived the leaves of toxicity when painted on the surface of papaya and fig leaves. Cysteine proteases, such as papain, ficin, and bromelain, all showed toxicity. The results suggest that plant latex and the proteins in it, cysteine proteases in particular, provide plants with a general defense mechanism against herbivorous insects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kotaro Konno
- National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, 1-2 Ohwashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8634, Japan
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Giri A, Dhingra V, Giri CC, Singh A, Ward OP, Narasu ML. Biotransformations using plant cells, organ cultures and enzyme systems: current trends and future prospects. Biotechnol Adv 2004; 19:175-99. [PMID: 14538082 DOI: 10.1016/s0734-9750(01)00054-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Plants are valuable sources of a variety of chemicals including drugs, flavours, pigments and agrochemicals. Some of the biochemical reactions occurring in plant cells are complex and cannot be achieved by synthetic routes. In vitro plant cell and organ cultures and plant enzymes act as suitable biocatalysts to perform these complex reactions. A wide variety of chemical compounds including aromatics, steroids, alkaloids, coumarins and terpenoids can undergo biotransformations using plant cells, organ cultures and enzymes. The biocatalyst-mediated reactions are regiospecific and stereospecific. Reaction types include oxidations, reductions, hydroxylations, methylations, acetylations, isomerizations, glycosylations and esterfications. Genetic manipulation approaches to biotransformation offer great potential to express heterologous genes and to clone and overexpress genes for key enzymes. Biotransformation efficiencies can further be improved using molecular techniques involving site-directed mutagenesis and gene manipulation for substrate specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Giri
- Centre for Biotechnology, Institute of PG Studies and Research, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Mahaveer Marg, Hyderabad, India.
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Moore KG, Price MS, Boston RS, Weissinger AK, Payne GA. A Chitinase from Tex6 Maize Kernels Inhibits Growth of Aspergillus flavus. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2004; 94:82-7. [PMID: 18943823 DOI: 10.1094/phyto.2004.94.1.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT The maize inbred Tex6 has resistance to colonization and aflatoxin accumulation by Aspergillus flavus. A protein inhibitory to growth of A. flavus has been identified from aqueous extracts of mature Tex6 seeds. This study reports the purification of a chitinase associated with this inhibitory activity to electrophoretic homogeneity and the further characterization of its properties. The inhibitory protein, which has an M(r) of 29,000, as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, is an endochitinase that is also capable of exochitinase activity. The enzyme has an optimal pH of 5.5 and a temperature optimum of 45 degrees C. Chitinase activity in maize kernels peaked approximately 36 days after pollination. The Tex6 chitinase purified in this study is capable of inhibiting the growth of A. flavus by 50% at a concentration of 20 mug/ml. Our data indicate that chitinase activity in Tex6 kernels makes a major contribution to the antifungal activity in this maize genotype. Partial peptide sequence of the chitinase showed it to differ from previously reported chitinases.
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Azarkan M, El Moussaoui A, van Wuytswinkel D, Dehon G, Looze Y. Fractionation and purification of the enzymes stored in the latex of Carica papaya. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2003; 790:229-38. [PMID: 12767335 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(03)00084-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The latex of the tropical species Carica papaya is well known for being a rich source of the four cysteine endopeptidases papain, chymopapain, glycyl endopeptidase and caricain. Altogether, these enzymes are present in the laticifers at a concentration higher than 1 mM. The proteinases are synthesized as inactive precursors that convert into mature enzymes within 2 min after wounding the plant when the latex is abruptly expelled. Papaya latex also contains other enzymes as minor constituents. Several of these enzymes namely a class-II and a class-III chitinase, an inhibitor of serine proteinases and a glutaminyl cyclotransferase have already been purified up to apparent homogeneity and characterized. The presence of a beta-1,3-glucanase and of a cystatin is also suspected but they have not yet been isolated. Purification of these papaya enzymes calls on the use of ion-exchange supports (such as SP-Sepharose Fast Flow) and hydrophobic supports [such as Fractogel TSK Butyl 650(M), Fractogel EMD Propyl 650(S) or Thiophilic gels]. The use of covalent or affinity gels is recommended to provide preparations of cysteine endopeptidases with a high free thiol content (ideally 1 mol of essential free thiol function per mol of enzyme). The selective grafting of activated methoxypoly(ethylene glycol) chains (with M(r) of 5000) on the free thiol functions of the proteinases provides an interesting alternative to the use of covalent and affinity chromatographies especially in the case of enzymes such as chymopapain that contains, in its native state, two thiol functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Azarkan
- Laboratoire de Chimie Générale, Unité de Chimie des Protéines (CP 609), Faculté de Médecine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Campus Erasme, 808 Route de Lennik, B-1070, Brussels, Belgium
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Rhoades J, Roller S. Antimicrobial actions of degraded and native chitosan against spoilage organisms in laboratory media and foods. Appl Environ Microbiol 2000; 66:80-6. [PMID: 10618206 PMCID: PMC91788 DOI: 10.1128/aem.66.1.80-86.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/1999] [Accepted: 09/28/1999] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine whether chitosan (poly-beta-1,4-glucosamine) and hydrolysates of chitosan can be used as novel preservatives in foods. Chitosan was hydrolyzed by using oxidative-reductive degradation, crude papaya latex, and lysozyme. Mild hydrolysis of chitosan resulted in improved microbial inactivation in saline and greater inhibition of growth of several spoilage yeasts in laboratory media, but highly degraded products of chitosan exhibited no antimicrobial activity. In pasteurized apple-elderflower juice stored at 7 degrees C, addition of 0.3 g of chitosan per liter eliminated yeasts entirely for the duration of the experiment (13 days), while the total counts and the lactic acid bacterial counts increased at a slower rate than they increased in the control. Addition of 0.3 or 1.0 g of chitosan per kg had no effect on the microbial flora of hummus, a chickpea dip; in the presence of 5.0 g of chitosan per kg, bacterial growth but not yeast growth was substantially reduced compared with growth in control dip stored at 7 degrees C for 6 days. Improved antimicrobial potency of chitosan hydrolysates like that observed in the saline and laboratory medium experiments was not observed in juice and dip experiments. We concluded that native chitosan has potential for use as a preservative in certain types of food but that the increase in antimicrobial activity that occurs following partial hydrolysis is too small to justify the extra processing involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rhoades
- School of Applied Science, South Bank University, London SE1 0AA, United Kingdom
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Zerhouni S, Amrani A, Nijs M, Smolders N, Azarkan M, Vincentelli J, Looze Y. Purification and characterization of papaya glutamine cyclotransferase, a plant enzyme highly resistant to chemical, acid and thermal denaturation. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1998; 1387:275-90. [PMID: 9748628 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4838(98)00140-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Papaya glutamine cyclotransferase (PQC), present in the laticiferous cells of the tropical species Carica papaya, was purified near to homogeneity. Starting from the soluble fraction of the collected plant latex, a combination of ion-exchange chromatography on SP-Sepharose Fast Flow, hydrophobic interaction chromatography on Fractogel TSK Butyl-650 and affinity chromatography on immobilized trypsin provided a purification factor of 279 with an overall yield of 80%. In the course of the purification procedure, the two solvent accessible thiol functions located on the hydrophobic surface of the enzyme were converted into their S-methylthioderivatives. Papaya QC, a glycoprotein with a molecular mass of 33000 Da, contains a unique and highly basic polypeptide chain devoid of disulfide bridges as well as of covalently attached phosphate groups. Its absorption spectrum is dominated by the chromophores tyrosine which, nonetheless, do not contribute to the fluorescence emission of the plant enzyme. With a lambdamax of emission at 338 nm and a moderate susceptibility to be quenched by acrylamide, most of the tryptophyl residues of papaya QC appear to be sterically shielded by surrounding protein atoms. Fluorescence can thus be used to monitor unfolding of this enzyme. Preliminary experiments show that papaya QC is exceptionally resistant to chemical (guanidinium hydrochloride), acid and thermal denaturation. At first sight also, this enzyme exhibits high resistance to proteolysis by the papaya cysteine proteinases, yet present in great excess (around 100 mol of proteinases per mol of PQC) in the plant latex. Altogether, these results awaken much curiosity and interest to further investigate how the structure of this plant enzyme is specified.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Zerhouni
- Protein Chemistry Department (CP 609), Faculty of Medicine, Free University of Brussels, Campus Erasme, Route de Lennik, 808, B-1070 Brussels, Belgium
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