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Dermal bacterial LPS-stimulation reduces susceptibility to intradermal Trypanosoma brucei infection. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9856. [PMID: 33972588 PMCID: PMC8110744 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89053-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections with Trypanosoma brucei sp. are established after the injection of metacyclic trypomastigotes into the skin dermis by the tsetse fly vector. The parasites then gain access to the local lymphatic vessels to infect the local draining lymph nodes and disseminate systemically via the bloodstream. Macrophages are considered to play an important role in host protection during the early stage of systemic trypanosome infections. Macrophages are abundant in the skin dermis, but relatively little is known of their impact on susceptibility to intradermal (ID) trypanosome infections. We show that although dermal injection of colony stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) increased the local abundance of macrophages in the skin, this did not affect susceptibility to ID T. brucei infection. However, bacterial LPS-stimulation in the dermis prior to ID trypanosome infection significantly reduced disease susceptibility. In vitro assays showed that LPS-stimulated macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells had enhanced cytotoxicity towards T. brucei, implying that dermal LPS-treatment may similarly enhance the ability of dermal macrophages to eliminate ID injected T. brucei parasites in the skin. A thorough understanding of the factors that reduce susceptibility to ID injected T. brucei infections may lead to the development of novel strategies to help reduce the transmission of African trypanosomes.
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Mulindwa J, Matovu E, Enyaru J, Clayton C. Blood signatures for second stage human African trypanosomiasis: a transcriptomic approach. BMC Med Genomics 2020; 13:14. [PMID: 32000760 PMCID: PMC6993467 DOI: 10.1186/s12920-020-0666-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rhodesiense sleeping sickness is caused by infection with T. b rhodesiense parasites resulting in an acute disease that is fatal if not treated in time. The aim of this study was to understand the global impact of active T. b rhodesiense infection on the patient's immune response in the early and late stages of the disease. METHODS RNASeq was carried out on blood and cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) samples obtained from T. b. rhodesiense infected patients. The control samples used were from healthy individuals in the same foci. The Illumina sequenced reads were analysed using the Tuxedo suite pipeline (Tophat, Cufflinks, Cuffmerge, Cuffdiff) and differential expression analysis carried out using the R package DESeq2. The gene enrichment and function annotation analysis were done using the ToppCluster, DAVID and InnateDB algorithms. RESULTS We previously described the transcriptomes of T. b rhodesiense from infected early stage blood (n = 3) and late stage CSF (n = 3) samples from Eastern Uganda. We here identify human transcripts that were differentially expressed (padj < 0.05) in the early stage blood versus healthy controls (n = 3) and early stage blood versus late stage CSF. Differential expression in infected blood showed an enrichment of innate immune response genes whereas that of the CSF showed enrichment for anti-inflammatory and neuro-degeneration signalling pathways. We also identified genes (C1QC, MARCO, IGHD3-10) that were up-regulated (log2 FC > 2.5) in both the blood and CSF. CONCLUSION The data yields insights into the host's response to T. b rhodesiense parasites in the blood and central nervous system. We identified key pathways and signalling molecules for the predominant innate immune response in the early stage infection; and anti-inflammatory and neuro-degeneration pathways associated with sleep disorders in second stage infection. We further identified potential blood biomarkers that can be used for diagnosis of late stage disease without the need for lumbar puncture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julius Mulindwa
- Department of Biochemistry and Sports Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P. O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
| | - Enock Matovu
- Department of Biotechnical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, P. O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - John Enyaru
- Department of Biochemistry and Sports Sciences, College of Natural Sciences, Makerere University, P. O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Christine Clayton
- Centre for Molecular Biology of Heidelberg University (ZMBH), DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Im Neuenheimer Feld 282, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
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Sternberg JM, Mitchell JA. Plasma neuronal specific enolase: a potential stage diagnostic marker in human African trypanosomiasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2014; 108:449-52. [PMID: 24789741 PMCID: PMC4342681 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/tru065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2014] [Revised: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study was carried out to determine the potential of neuronal specific enolase (NSE) as a stage diagnostic marker in human African trypanosomiasis. METHODS Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid were obtained from a cohort of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense-infected patients and non-infected controls. Neuronal specific enolase concentrations were measured by ELISA and analysed in relation to diagnosis and disease-stage data. RESULTS Plasma NSE concentration was significantly increased in late-stage patients (median 21 ng/ml), compared to the control (median 11 ng/ml), but not in early-stage patients (median 5.3 ng/ml). Cerebrospinal fluid NSE concentration did not vary between stages. CONCLUSION Plasma NSE is a potential stage diagnostic in this cohort and merits further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M Sternberg
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University Of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
| | - Julia A Mitchell
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University Of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
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Translation of human African trypanosomiasis biomarkers towards field application. TRANSLATIONAL PROTEOMICS 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trprot.2013.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
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Maclean L, Odiit M, Macleod A, Morrison L, Sweeney L, Cooper A, Kennedy PGE, Sternberg JM. Spatially and genetically distinct African Trypanosome virulence variants defined by host interferon-gamma response. J Infect Dis 2007; 196:1620-8. [PMID: 18008245 DOI: 10.1086/522011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2007] [Accepted: 04/28/2007] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe 2 spatially distinct foci of human African trypanosomiasis in eastern Uganda. The Tororo and Soroti foci of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infection were genetically distinct as characterized by 6 microsatellite and 1 minisatellite polymorphic markers and were characterized by differences in disease progression and host-immune response. In particular, infections with the Tororo genotype exhibited an increased frequency of progression to and severity of the meningoencephalitic stage and higher plasma interferon (IFN)- gamma concentration, compared with those with the Soroti genotype. We propose that the magnitude of the systemic IFN- gamma response determines the time at which infected individuals develop central nervous system infection and that this is consistent with the recently described role of IFN- gamma in facilitating blood-brain barrier transmigration of trypanosomes in an experimental model of infection. The identification of trypanosome isolates with differing disease progression phenotypes provides the first field-based genetic evidence for virulence variants in T. brucei rhodesiense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorna Maclean
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB24 2TZ, Scotland
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Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness is caused by infection with two subspecies of the tsetse-fly-vectored haemoflagellate parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Historically, epidemic sleeping sickness has caused massive loss of life, and related animal diseases have had a crucial impact on development in sub-Saharan Africa. After a period of moderately successful control during the mid-part of the 20th century, sleeping sickness incidence is currently rising, and control is hampered by a combination of factors, including civil unrest and the possible development of drug resistance by the parasites. The prevailing view is that the disease is invariably fatal without anti-trypanosomal drug treatment. However, there have also been intriguing reports of wide variations in disease severity as well as evidence of asymptomatic carriers of trypanosomes. These differences in the presentation of the disease will be discussed in the context of our knowledge of the immunology of trypanosomiasis. The impact of dysregulated inflammatory responses in both systemic and CNS pathology will be examined and the potential for host genotype variation in disease severity and control will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Sternberg
- Zoology Building, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, UK.
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Maina N, Ngotho JM, Were T, Thuita JK, Mwangangi DM, Kagira JM, Ndung'u JM, Sternberg J. Proinflammatory cytokine expression in the early phase of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense infection in vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). Infect Immun 2004; 72:3063-5. [PMID: 15102822 PMCID: PMC387871 DOI: 10.1128/iai.72.5.3063-3065.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A vervet monkey model of trypanosomiasis was used to study inflammatory cytokine responses in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Gamma interferon levels were transiently up-regulated in serum between days 6 and 8 of infection, followed by a sustained up-regulation of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and soluble TNF receptor 1. At no time were these cytokines detectable in the CSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Maina
- Primate Division, Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute, Kikuyu, Kenya. Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB29 2TZ, Scotland, United Kingdom
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Mamani-Matsuda M, Rambert J, Malvy D, Lejoly-Boisseau H, Daulouède S, Thiolat D, Coves S, Courtois P, Vincendeau P, Mossalayi MD. Quercetin induces apoptosis of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and decreases the proinflammatory response of human macrophages. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48:924-9. [PMID: 14982785 PMCID: PMC353125 DOI: 10.1128/aac.48.3.924-929.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to parasite spread, the severity of disease observed in cases of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, is associated with increased levels of inflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and nitric oxide derivatives. In the present study, quercetin (3,3',4',5,7-pentahydroxyflavone), a potent immunomodulating flavonoid, was shown to directly induce the death of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, the causative agent of HAT, without affecting normal human cell viability. Quercetin directly promoted T. b. gambiense death by apoptosis as shown by Annexin V binding. In addition to microbicidal activity, quercetin induced dose-dependent decreases in the levels of TNF-alpha and nitric oxide produced by activated human macrophages. These results highlight the potential use of quercetin as an antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory agent for the treatment of African trypanomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Mamani-Matsuda
- Laboratoires d'Immunologie et de Parasitologie, E.A. 3677, Bases Thérapeutiques Anti-Infectieuses et Anti-Inflammatoires, Université Bordeaux II, France.
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Lejon V, Lardon J, Kenis G, Pinoges L, Legros D, Bisser S, N'Siesi X, Bosmans E, Büscher P. Interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8 and IL-10 in serum and CSF of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness patients before and after treatment. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2002; 96:329-33. [PMID: 12174791 DOI: 10.1016/s0035-9203(02)90115-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) concentrations of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interferon-gamma were determined in 46 Trypanosoma brucei gambiense sleeping sickness patients in DR Congo, before and after treatment. According to their CSF cell number before treatment, patients were classified as early-stage (0-5 cells/microL), intermediate-stage (6-20 cells/microL) or late-stage patients (> 20 cells/microL). In serum, slightly higher IL-8 concentrations were found in early-stage patients compared to intermediate- or late-stage patients. These high IL-8 levels dropped after treatment. Higher IL-10 concentrations were detected in serum of patients in intermediate or late stage compared to early-stage patients. In both intermediate- and late-stage groups, serum IL-10 decreased after treatment. In CSF, elevated concentrations of IL-6, IL-8 and especially of IL-10 were observed in late-stage T. b. gambiense patients. After treatment, these concentrations dropped to levels similar to those of the other patients. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha was detected only in a few serum and CSF samples, which were scattered over the different patient groups. Interferon-gamma was detected in serum of 5 patients and remained undetectable in CSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Lejon
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Nationalestraat 155, B-2000 Antwerpen, Belgium.
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Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is implicated as an integral component of the host armament against invading parasites. Strongest evidence has come from laboratory models of protozoan infections. During malaria, toxoplasmosis and leishmaniasis, to name just a few, the preferential production of pro-inflammatory cytokines predisposes to the increased synthesis of NO, which mediates host protection through either direct parasite killing or by limiting parasite growth. More recently, evidence has been put forward for a beneficial role of NO during helminthic infections. In the case of Schistosomiasis mansoni, for example, NO plays a role in regulation of egg-induced inflammation, preventing hepatocyte death and widespread tissue damage. In spite of these findings, rather than being the ultimate panacea, NO production requires tight control to limit cytotoxic damage to the host's own cells. Unregulated production may lead to a variety of damaging effects including alterations to normal neurological functions during cerebral malaria and intestinal pathology during trichinosis. In this review, I will summarize the role of NO during a number of parasitic infections, drawing on specific examples of disease caused by protozoan and metazoan parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- L R Brunet
- Department of Bacteriology, Windeyer Institute of Medical Science, University College London, UK.
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Buguet A, Bourdon L, Bouteille B, Cespuglio R, Vincendeau P, Radomski MW, Dumas M. The duality of sleeping sickness: focusing on sleep. Sleep Med Rev 2001; 5:139-153. [PMID: 12531051 DOI: 10.1053/smrv.2000.0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Sleeping sickness, once under control, is a re-emergent endemic parasitic disease in intertropical Africa. Its originality resides in its duality. Two trypanosome groups (Trypanososma brucei gambiense vs.rhodesiense ) are transmitted to humans by tsetse flies from two geographical areas (Western and Central Africa humid forest vs. Eastern Africa arboreous savannah), provoking a slowly or a rapidly evolutive disease. The two stage (haemolymphatic vs. neurological invasion) pathogenic evolution leads to the duality of the immune response, depending on the host-parasite inter-relation differences in the blood and the brain. In the blood, the immune processes involved are both specific (anti-variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) antibodies) and non-specific (complement-mediated lysis, opsonification-facilitated phagocytosis and antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity). Although macrophages are activated in the blood and infiltrate the brain, nitric oxide decreases in the blood and increases in the brain, with a breakage in the blood-brain barrier, leading to brain lesions through the production of deleterious molecules. Prophylactic means are affected by the duality of pathogenic processes. This finally leads to a two stage disease (haemolymphatic vs. neurological) with two different therapeutic strategies. The sleep-wake cycle and other biological rhythms are also marked by the disappearance of circadian rhythmicity demasking basic ultradian activities and relationships, such as the interdependence of endocrine profiles and the sleep-wake alternation. 2001 Harcourt Publishers Ltd
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