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Cao X, Du X, Jiao H, An Q, Chen R, Fang P, Wang J, Yu B. Carbohydrate-based drugs launched during 2000 -2021. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:3783-3821. [PMID: 36213536 PMCID: PMC9532563 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2022.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Carbohydrates are fundamental molecules involved in nearly all aspects of lives, such as being involved in formating the genetic and energy materials, supporting the structure of organisms, constituting invasion and host defense systems, and forming antibiotics secondary metabolites. The naturally occurring carbohydrates and their derivatives have been extensively studied as therapeutic agents for the treatment of various diseases. During 2000 to 2021, totally 54 carbohydrate-based drugs which contain carbohydrate moities as the major structural units have been approved as drugs or diagnostic agents. Here we provide a comprehensive review on the chemical structures, activities, and clinical trial results of these carbohydrate-based drugs, which are categorized by their indications into antiviral drugs, antibacterial/antiparasitic drugs, anticancer drugs, antidiabetics drugs, cardiovascular drugs, nervous system drugs, and other agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Cao
- Zhongshan Hospital Institute of Clinical Science, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xiaojing Du
- Zhongshan Hospital Institute of Clinical Science, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Heng Jiao
- Zhongshan Hospital Institute of Clinical Science, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Quanlin An
- Zhongshan Hospital Institute of Clinical Science, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Ruoxue Chen
- Zhongshan Hospital Institute of Clinical Science, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Pengfei Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Biao Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry, Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
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Asgary V, Shoari A, Afshar Moayad M, Shafiee Ardestani M, Bigdeli R, Ghazizadeh L, Khosravy MS, Panahnejad E, Janani A, Bashar R, Abedi M, Ahangari Cohan R. Evaluation of G2 Citric Acid-Based Dendrimer as an Adjuvant in Veterinary Rabies Vaccine. Viral Immunol 2017; 31:47-54. [PMID: 29328884 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2017.0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
For induction of an appropriate immune response, especially in the case of an inactivated vaccine, the use of an adjuvant is crucial. In this study, adjuvanticity effect of G2 dendrimer in veterinary rabies vaccine has been investigated. A nonlinear globular G2 dendrimer comprising citric acid and polyethylene glycol 600 (PEG-600) was synthesized and the toxicity was studied in vitro on the J774A.1 cell line. The adjuvanticity effect of the dendrimer was then investigated on rabies virus in NMRI mice as a model. Different concentrations of dendrimer were used to determine the best formulation for the survival of the mice after virus challenge. The rise of neutralizing antibody was also checked by rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT). The relative potency of the prepared formulation was finally calculated using standard NIH test and the results were compared (and discussed) with the commercially available rabies vaccine. The accuracy of dendrimer synthesis was confirmed using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), size, and zeta potential analysis. The in vitro toxicity assay revealed that no significant toxic effect is observed in cells when data are compared with the control group. The in vivo assay showed that a higher survival rate in the mice received a special formulation due to adjuvanticity effect of dendrimer, which is also confirmed by RFFIT. However, the relative potency of that formulation does not give expected results when compared with the alum-containing rabies vaccine. In the current investigation, the adjuvanticity effect of G2 dendrimer was demonstrated for the first time in rising of neutralizing antibodies against rabies virus. Our data confirm that nanoparticles can enhance immune responses in an appropriate manner. Moreover, engineered nanoparticles will enable us to develop novel potent multivalent adjuvants in vaccine technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahid Asgary
- 1 Department of Rabies, Virology Research Group, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran .,2 Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Shoari
- 1 Department of Rabies, Virology Research Group, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Majid Afshar Moayad
- 1 Department of Rabies, Virology Research Group, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Mehdi Shafiee Ardestani
- 3 Department of Radiopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences , Tehran, Iran
| | - Razieh Bigdeli
- 4 Research and Development Laboratory, Javid Biotechnology Institute , Tehran, Iran
| | - Leila Ghazizadeh
- 5 National Cell Bank of Iran, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Erfan Panahnejad
- 4 Research and Development Laboratory, Javid Biotechnology Institute , Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Janani
- 1 Department of Rabies, Virology Research Group, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Rouzbeh Bashar
- 1 Department of Rabies, Virology Research Group, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Maliheh Abedi
- 1 Department of Rabies, Virology Research Group, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
| | - Reza Ahangari Cohan
- 6 Department of Pilot Nanobiotechnology, New Technology Research Group, Pasteur Institute of Iran , Tehran, Iran
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3
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Synthesis of AB4-type carbohydrate scaffolds as branching units in the glycosciences. Carbohydr Res 2016; 425:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2016.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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4
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Müller C, Despras G, Lindhorst TK. Organizing multivalency in carbohydrate recognition. Chem Soc Rev 2016; 45:3275-302. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cs00165c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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5
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Lee SK, Park MK, Jhang HE, Yi J, Nahm K, Cho DW, Ra CS, Musilek K, Horova A, Korabecny J, Dolezal R, Jun D, Kuca K. Preparation of 7-Methoxy Tacrine Dimer Analogs and TheirIn vitro/In silicoEvaluation as Potential Cholinesterase Inhibitors. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/bkcs.10317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sang Kwang Lee
- Department of Chemistry; Yeungnam University; Gyeongsan 712-749 Korea
| | - Min Kyun Park
- Department of Chemistry; Yeungnam University; Gyeongsan 712-749 Korea
| | - Ho Eun Jhang
- Department of Chemistry; Yeungnam University; Gyeongsan 712-749 Korea
| | - Jinju Yi
- Department of Chemistry; Yeungnam University; Gyeongsan 712-749 Korea
| | - Keepyong Nahm
- Department of Chemistry; Yeungnam University; Gyeongsan 712-749 Korea
| | - Dae Won Cho
- Department of Chemistry; Yeungnam University; Gyeongsan 712-749 Korea
| | - Choon Sup Ra
- Department of Chemistry; Yeungnam University; Gyeongsan 712-749 Korea
| | - Kamil Musilek
- Department of Chemisty, Faculty of Science; University of Hradec Kralove; Hradec Kralove 50003 Czech Republic
| | - Anna Horova
- Department of Toxicology and Centre of Advanced Studies, Faculty of Military Health Sciences; University of Defence; Hradec Kralove 50001 Czech Republic
| | - Jan Korabecny
- Department of Toxicology and Centre of Advanced Studies, Faculty of Military Health Sciences; University of Defence; Hradec Kralove 50001 Czech Republic
- Biomedical Research Centre; University Hospital; Hradec Kralove 50005 Czech Republic
| | - Rafael Dolezal
- Biomedical Research Centre; University Hospital; Hradec Kralove 50005 Czech Republic
- Center for Basic and Applied Research, Faculty of Informatics and Management; University Hospital Hradec Kralove; Hradec Kralove 50003 Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Jun
- Department of Toxicology and Centre of Advanced Studies, Faculty of Military Health Sciences; University of Defence; Hradec Kralove 50001 Czech Republic
- Biomedical Research Centre; University Hospital; Hradec Kralove 50005 Czech Republic
| | - Kamil Kuca
- Department of Chemisty, Faculty of Science; University of Hradec Kralove; Hradec Kralove 50003 Czech Republic
- Department of Toxicology and Centre of Advanced Studies, Faculty of Military Health Sciences; University of Defence; Hradec Kralove 50001 Czech Republic
- Biomedical Research Centre; University Hospital; Hradec Kralove 50005 Czech Republic
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6
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The janus facet of nanomaterials. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:317184. [PMID: 26075225 PMCID: PMC4449866 DOI: 10.1155/2015/317184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 12/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Application of nanoscale materials (NMs) displays a rapidly increasing trend in electronics, optics, chemical catalysis, biotechnology, and medicine due to versatile nature of NMs and easily adjustable physical, physicochemical, and chemical properties. However, the increasing abundance of NMs also poses significant new and emerging health and environmental risks. Despite growing efforts, understanding toxicity of NMs does not seem to cope with the demand, because NMs usually act entirely different from those of conventional small molecule drugs. Currently, large-scale application of available safety assessment protocols, as well as their furthering through case-by-case practice, is advisable. We define a standard work-scheme for nanotoxicity evaluation of NMs, comprising thorough characterization of structural, physical, physicochemical, and chemical traits, followed by measuring biodistribution in live tissue and blood combined with investigation of organ-specific effects especially regarding the function of the brain and the liver. We propose a range of biochemical, cellular, and immunological processes to be explored in order to provide information on the early effects of NMs on some basic physiological functions and chemical defense mechanisms. Together, these contributions give an overview with important implications for the understanding of many aspects of nanotoxicity.
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Singh G, Ghosh U, Pal S, Ampapathi RS, Chakraborty TK. βγ-fused turn structures in sugar amino acid (SAA) containing cyclic tetrapeptides with α3δ architecture. Tetrahedron 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2014.06.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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8
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Neff C, Bellot F, Waern JB, Lambert F, Brandel J, Serratrice G, Gaboriau F, Policar C. Glycosiderophores: Synthesis of tris-hydroxamate siderophores based on a galactose or glycero central scaffold, Fe(III) complexation studies. J Inorg Biochem 2012; 112:59-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2012.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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9
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Mishra V, Gupta U, Jain NK. Surface-Engineered Dendrimers: a Solution for Toxicity Issues. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2012; 20:141-66. [DOI: 10.1163/156856208x386246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Mishra
- a Pharmaceutics Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. H. S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.) 470003, India
| | - Umesh Gupta
- b Pharmaceutics Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. H. S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.) 470003, India
| | - N. K. Jain
- c Pharmaceutics Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. H. S. Gour University, Sagar (M.P.) 470003, India
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Heegaard PMH, Boas U, Sorensen NS. Dendrimers for vaccine and immunostimulatory uses. A review. Bioconjug Chem 2009; 21:405-18. [PMID: 19886668 DOI: 10.1021/bc900290d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Dendrimers are well-defined (monodisperse) synthetic globular polymers with a range of interesting chemical and biological properties. Chemical properties include the presence of multiple accessible surface functional groups that can be used for coupling biologically relevant molecules and methods that allow for precise heterofunctionalization of surface groups. Biologically, dendrimers are highly biocompatible and have predictable biodistribution and cell membrane interacting characteristics determined by their size and surface charge. Dendrimers have optimal characteristics to fill the need for efficient immunostimulating compounds (adjuvants) that can increase the efficiency of vaccines, as dendrimers can provide molecularly defined multivalent scaffolds to produce highly defined conjugates with small molecule immunostimulators and/or antigens. The review gives an overview on the use of dendrimers as molecularly defined carriers/presenters of small antigens, including constructs that have built-in immunostimulatory (adjuvant) properties, and as stand-alone adjuvants that can be mixed with antigens to provide efficient vaccine formulations. These approaches allow the preparation of molecularly defined vaccines with highly predictable and specific properties and enable knowledge-based vaccine design substituting the traditional empirically based approaches for vaccine development and production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M H Heegaard
- Innate Immunology Group, National Veterinary Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark, and Chemical Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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11
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Zhong W, Skwarczynski M, Simerska P, Good MF, Toth I. Development of highly pure α-helical lipoglycopeptides as self-adjuvanting vaccines. Tetrahedron 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2009.02.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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Simerska P, Lu H, Toth I. Synthesis of a Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine candidate based on the M protein PL1 epitope. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:821-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2008.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2008] [Revised: 11/28/2008] [Accepted: 12/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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13
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Zhong W, Skwarczynski M, Fujita Y, Simerska P, Good MF, Toth I. Design and Synthesis of Lipopeptide - Carbohydrate Assembled Multivalent Vaccine Candidates Using Native Chemical Ligation. Aust J Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1071/ch09065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Development of a synthetic vaccine against group A streptococcal infection is increasingly paramount due to the induction of autoimmunity by the main virulent factor – M protein. Peptide vaccines, however, are generally poorly immunogenic, necessitating administration with carriers and adjuvants. One of the promising approaches to deliver antigenic peptides is to assemble peptides on a suitable template which directs the attached peptides to form a well defined tertiary structure. For self-adjuvanting human vaccines, the conjugation of immunostimulatory lipids has been demonstrated as a potentially safe method. This study describes the design and optimized synthesis of two lipopeptide conjugated carbohydrate templates and the assembling of peptide antigens. These lipopeptide–carbohydrate assembled multivalent vaccine candidates were obtained in high yield and purity when native chemical ligation was applied. Circular dichroism studies indicated that the template-assembled peptides form four α-helix bundles. The developed technique extends the use of carbohydrate templates and lipopeptide conjugates for producing self-adjuvanting and topology-controlled vaccine candidates.
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Vaccine delivery utilizing liposaccharides. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2009; 611:345-6. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-73657-0_153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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15
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Simerska P, Abdel-Aal ABM, Fujita Y, Moyle PM, McGeary RP, Batzloff MR, Olive C, Good MF, Toth I. Development of a liposaccharide-based delivery system and its application to the design of group A streptococcal vaccines. J Med Chem 2008; 51:1447-52. [PMID: 18278857 DOI: 10.1021/jm701410p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Group A streptococcus (GAS) is associated with many human diseases, ranging in severity from benign to life-threatening. A promising strategy for developing vaccines against GAS involves the use of carbohydrates as carriers for peptide antigens. This study describes the optimized synthesis of d-glucose and d-galactose derived carriers, bearing an adipate linker and four tert-butoxycarbonyl protected aminopropyl groups. Prophylactic GAS vaccine candidates were synthesized by conjugating multiple copies of a single GAS M protein derived peptide antigen (either J8 or J14) onto the carbohydrate carriers. These antigens contain peptide sequences, which are highly conserved and offer the potential to prevent infections caused by up to 70% of GAS strains. Lipophilic amino acids were also conjugated to the d-glucose anomeric carbon to produce a self-adjuvanting liposaccharide vaccine. High serum IgG antibody titers against each of the incorporated peptide epitopes were detected following subcutaneous immunization of B10.BR (H-2 (k)) mice with the liposaccharide vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavla Simerska
- School of Molecular and Microbial Sciences , The University of Queensland, St Lucia 4072, Queensland, Australia
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16
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Hayes PY, Ross BP, Thomas BG, Toth I. Polycationic lipophilic-core dendrons as penetration enhancers for the oral administration of low molecular weight heparin. Bioorg Med Chem 2006; 14:143-52. [PMID: 16169233 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2005.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2005] [Revised: 08/01/2005] [Accepted: 08/01/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Two polycationic lipophilic-core carbohydrate-based dendrons 2a-b and five polycationic lipophilic-core peptide dendrons 3-6, containing four arginine or lysine terminal residues, were synthesized and then tested in rats as penetration enhancers for the oral delivery of low molecular weight heparin. Better results were obtained with dendrons containing terminal lysine residues than terminal arginine. A significant anti-factor Xa activity was obtained when low molecular weight heparin was coadministered with dendron 5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Y Hayes
- Discipline of Chemistry, School of Molecular and Microbial Sciences, and School of Pharmacy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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18
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19
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Development of lipid-core-peptide (LCP) based vaccines for the prevention of group A streptococcal (GAS) infection. Int J Pept Res Ther 2003. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-004-2431-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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20
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Development of lipid-core-peptide (LCP) based vaccines for the prevention of group A streptococcal (GAS) infection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02442594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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21
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Aulenta F, Hayes W, Rannard S. Dendrimers: a new class of nanoscopic containers and delivery devices. Eur Polym J 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0014-3057(03)00100-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 328] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Wang LX, Ni J, Singh S. Carbohydrate-centered maleimide cluster as a new type of templates for multivalent peptide assembling. synthesis of multivalent HIV-1 gp41 peptides. Bioorg Med Chem 2003; 11:159-66. [PMID: 12467718 DOI: 10.1016/s0968-0896(02)00339-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes a facile synthesis of carbohydrate-centered maleimide clusters and their application as a new type of templates for multivalent peptide assembling. Simultaneous introduction of multiple maleimide functionalities onto a carbohydrate core was achieved through the reaction of carbohydrate-based polyamines with methoxycarbonylmaleimide or with the N-hydroxylsuccinimide ester of 6-maleimidohexanoic acid. The clustered maleimides placed on the carbohydrate core allow rapid and highly chemoselective ligation with multiple copies of cysteine-containing peptides under virtually neutral conditions at room temperature. This mild and highly efficient ligation method is extremely valuable for synthesizing large and complex multivalent peptides that may not be easily obtained by conventional ligation methods. The usefulness of the maleimide clusters as a new type of templates for multivalent peptide synthesis was exemplified by the synthesis of two tetravalent gp41 peptides incorporating the sequence of the potent HIV inhibitor, T20. The synthetic multivalent gp41 peptides are useful as novel immunogens to raise specific antibodies for HIV studies. They are also useful probes for studying HIV membrane fusion mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lai-Xi Wang
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute, University of Maryland, 725 W. Lombard Street, Baltimore 21201, USA.
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