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Fish Cytolysins in All Their Complexity. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120877. [PMID: 34941715 PMCID: PMC8704401 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The majority of the effects observed upon envenomation by scorpaenoid fish species can be reproduced by the cytolysins present in their venoms. Fish cytolysins are multifunctional proteins that elicit lethal, cytolytic, cardiovascular, inflammatory, nociceptive, and neuromuscular activities, representing a novel class of protein toxins. These large proteins (MW 150–320 kDa) are composed by two different subunits, termed α and β, with about 700 amino acid residues each, being usually active in oligomeric form. There is a high degree of similarity between the primary sequences of cytolysins from different fish species. This suggests these molecules share similar mechanisms of action, which, at least regarding the cytolytic activity, has been proved to involve pore formation. Although the remaining components of fish venoms have interesting biological activities, fish cytolysins stand out because of their multifunctional nature and their ability to reproduce the main events of envenomation on their own. Considerable knowledge about fish cytolysins has been accumulated over the years, although there remains much to be unveiled. In this review, we compiled and compared the current information on the biochemical aspects and pharmacological activities of fish cytolysins, going over their structures, activities, mechanisms of action, and perspectives for the future.
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Saggiomo SL, Firth C, Wilson DT, Seymour J, Miles JJ, Wong Y. The Geographic Distribution, Venom Components, Pathology and Treatments of Stonefish ( Synanceia spp.) Venom. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19060302. [PMID: 34073964 PMCID: PMC8225006 DOI: 10.3390/md19060302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Stonefish are regarded as one of the most venomous fish in the world. Research on stonefish venom has chiefly focused on the in vitro and in vivo neurological, cardiovascular, cytotoxic and nociceptive effects of the venom. The last literature review on stonefish venom was published over a decade ago, and much has changed in the field since. In this review, we have generated a global map of the current distribution of all stonefish (Synanceia) species, presented a table of clinical case reports and provided up-to-date information about the development of polyspecific stonefish antivenom. We have also presented an overview of recent advancements in the biomolecular composition of stonefish venom, including the analysis of transcriptomic and proteomic data from Synanceia horrida venom gland. Moreover, this review highlights the need for further research on the composition and properties of stonefish venom, which may reveal novel molecules for drug discovery, development or other novel physiological uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia L. Saggiomo
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM), James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia; (C.F.); (D.T.W.); (J.S.); (J.J.M.); (Y.W.)
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia
- Correspondence:
| | - Cadhla Firth
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM), James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia; (C.F.); (D.T.W.); (J.S.); (J.J.M.); (Y.W.)
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia
| | - David T. Wilson
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM), James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia; (C.F.); (D.T.W.); (J.S.); (J.J.M.); (Y.W.)
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia
| | - Jamie Seymour
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM), James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia; (C.F.); (D.T.W.); (J.S.); (J.J.M.); (Y.W.)
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia
| | - John J. Miles
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM), James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia; (C.F.); (D.T.W.); (J.S.); (J.J.M.); (Y.W.)
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia
- Centre for Tropical Bioinformatics and Molecular Biology, James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia
| | - Yide Wong
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM), James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia; (C.F.); (D.T.W.); (J.S.); (J.J.M.); (Y.W.)
- Centre for Molecular Therapeutics, James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia
- Centre for Tropical Bioinformatics and Molecular Biology, James Cook University, Cairns 4878, Australia
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Harris RJ, Youngman NJ, Chan W, Bosmans F, Cheney KL, Fry BG. Getting stoned: Characterisation of the coagulotoxic and neurotoxic effects of reef stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) venom. Toxicol Lett 2021; 346:16-22. [PMID: 33878385 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2021.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The reef stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) is a venomous fish which causes excruciatingly painful envenomations. While some research on the pathophysiology and functions of the venom have been conducted, there are still some gaps in the understanding of the venom effects due to the extreme lability of fish venom toxins and the lack of available testing platforms. Here we set out to assess new functions of the venom whilst also attempting to address some unclear pathophysiological effects from previous literature. Utilising a biolayer interferometry assay, our results highlight that the venom binds to the orthosteric site of the α-1 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor as well as the domain IV of voltage-gated Ca2+ (CaV1.2) channel mimotopes. Both these results add some clarity to the previously ambiguous literature. We further assessed the coagulotoxic effects of the venom using thromboelastography and Stago STA-R Max coagulation analyser assays. We reveal that the venom produced anticoagulant activity and significantly delayed time until clot formation of recalcified human plasma which is likely through the degradation of phospholipids. There was a difference between fresh and lyophilised venom activity toward the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor mimotopes and coagulation assays, whilst no difference was observed in the activity toward the domain IV of CaV1.2 mimotopes. This research adds further insights into the neglected area of fish venom whilst also highlighting the extreme labile nature of fish venom toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
| | - Nicholas J Youngman
- Venom Evolution Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Weili Chan
- Visual Ecology Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia; School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Frank Bosmans
- Department of Basic and Applied Medical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Karen L Cheney
- Visual Ecology Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
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4
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Pereira LDM, Messias EA, Sorroche BP, Oliveira ADN, Arantes LMRB, de Carvalho AC, Tanaka-Azevedo AM, Grego KF, Carvalho AL, Melendez ME. In-depth transcriptome reveals the potential biotechnological application of Bothrops jararaca venom gland. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2020; 26:e20190058. [PMID: 33149734 PMCID: PMC7579844 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2019-0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Lack of complete genomic data of Bothrops jararaca impedes molecular biology research focusing on biotechnological applications of venom gland components. Identification of full-length coding regions of genes is crucial for the correct molecular cloning design. Methods: RNA was extracted from the venom gland of one adult female specimen of Bothrops jararaca. Deep sequencing of the mRNA library was performed using Illumina NextSeq 500 platform. De novo assembly of B. jararaca transcriptome was done using Trinity. Annotation was performed using Blast2GO. All predicted proteins after clustering step were blasted against non-redundant protein database of NCBI using BLASTP. Metabolic pathways present in the transcriptome were annotated using the KAAS-KEGG Automatic Annotation Server. Toxins were identified in the B. jararaca predicted proteome using BLASTP against all protein sequences obtained from Animal Toxin Annotation Project from Uniprot KB/Swiss-Pro database. Figures and data visualization were performed using ggplot2 package in R language environment. Results: We described the in-depth transcriptome analysis of B. jararaca venom gland, in which 76,765 de novo assembled isoforms, 96,044 transcribed genes and 41,196 unique proteins were identified. The most abundant transcript was the zinc metalloproteinase-disintegrin-like jararhagin. Moreover, we identified 78 distinct functional classes of proteins, including toxins, inhibitors and tumor suppressors. Other venom proteins identified were the hemolytic lethal factors stonustoxin and verrucotoxin. Conclusion: It is believed that the application of deep sequencing to the analysis of snake venom transcriptomes may represent invaluable insight on their biotechnological potential focusing on candidate molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leandro de Mattos Pereira
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, SP, Brazil.,Laboratory of Molecular Microbial Ecology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Elisa Alves Messias
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - André Lopes Carvalho
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, SP, Brazil
| | - Matias Eliseo Melendez
- Molecular Oncology Research Center, Barretos Cancer Hospital, Barretos, SP, Brazil.,Pelé Little Prince Research Institute, Curitiba, PR, Brazil.,Little Prince College, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
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Maillaud C, Hoang-Oppermann T, Hoang-Oppermann V, Rigot H, Girardot S, Nour M. Is stonefish Synanceia verrucosa envenomation potentially lethal? Toxicon 2020; 184:78-82. [PMID: 32473254 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Stonefish sting lethality in man has been scarcely documented since the middle of the 20th century. We report three clinical cases, including one fatality, emphasizing the cardiovascular toxicity of the Synanceia verrucosa venom, and its potentially lethal effects. All clinical data have been recently collected in New Caledonia and French Polynesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Maillaud
- ISEA EA 7484, University of New Caledonia, P.O. Box R4, 98851, Noumea Cedex, New Caledonia.
| | - T Hoang-Oppermann
- Hospital Centre French Polynesia, P. O. Box 1640, 98713, Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia
| | - V Hoang-Oppermann
- Hospital Centre French Polynesia, P. O. Box 1640, 98713, Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia
| | - H Rigot
- Vaitape Medical Centre, 98730, Bora Bora, French Polynesia
| | - S Girardot
- Hospital Centre French Polynesia, P. O. Box 1640, 98713, Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia
| | - M Nour
- ISEA EA 7484, University of New Caledonia, P.O. Box R4, 98851, Noumea Cedex, New Caledonia
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Ziegman R, Undheim EAB, Baillie G, Jones A, Alewood PF. Investigation of the estuarine stonefish (Synanceia horrida) venom composition. J Proteomics 2019; 201:12-26. [PMID: 30953730 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The Estuarine stonefish (Synanceia horrida) is recognised as one of the most venomous fish species in the world but the overall venom composition has yet to be investigated using in-depth transcriptomic and proteomic methods. To date, known venom components are restricted to a hyaluronidase and a large, pore-forming toxin known as Stonustoxin (SNTX). Transcriptomic sequencing of the venom gland resulted in over 170,000 contigs with only 0.4% that were homologous to putative venom proteins. Integration of the transcriptomic data with proteomic data from the S. horrida venom confirmed the hyaluronidase and SNTX to be present, together with several other protein families including major contributions from C-type lectins. Other protein families observed included peroxiredoxin and several minor protein families such as Golgi-associated plant pathogenesis related proteins, tissue pathway factor inhibitors, and Kazal-type serine protease inhibitors that, although not putative venom proteins, may contribute to the venom's adverse effects. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Proteomic analysis of milked Synanceia horrida venom, paired with transcriptomic analysis of the venom gland tissue revealed for the first time the composition of one of the world's most dangerous fish venoms. The results demonstrate that the venom is relatively less complex compared to other well-studied venomous animals with a number of unique proteins not previously found in animal venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah Ziegman
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Gregory Baillie
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Alun Jones
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Paul F Alewood
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia.
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7
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Ziegman R, Alewood P. Bioactive components in fish venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:1497-531. [PMID: 25941767 PMCID: PMC4448160 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7051497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2015] [Revised: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 04/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal venoms are widely recognized excellent resources for the discovery of novel drug leads and physiological tools. Most are comprised of a large number of components, of which the enzymes, small peptides, and proteins are studied for their important bioactivities. However, in spite of there being over 2000 venomous fish species, piscine venoms have been relatively underrepresented in the literature thus far. Most studies have explored whole or partially fractioned venom, revealing broad pharmacology, which includes cardiovascular, neuromuscular, cytotoxic, inflammatory, and nociceptive activities. Several large proteinaceous toxins, such as stonustoxin, verrucotoxin, and Sp-CTx, have been isolated from scorpaenoid fish. These form pores in cell membranes, resulting in cell death and creating a cascade of reactions that result in many, but not all, of the physiological symptoms observed from envenomation. Additionally, Natterins, a novel family of toxins possessing kininogenase activity have been found in toadfish venom. A variety of smaller protein toxins, as well as a small number of peptides, enzymes, and non-proteinaceous molecules have also been isolated from a range of fish venoms, but most remain poorly characterized. Many other bioactive fish venom components remain to be discovered and investigated. These represent an untapped treasure of potentially useful molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah Ziegman
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, the University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Paul Alewood
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, the University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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8
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Chuang PS, Shiao JC. Toxin gene determination and evolution in scorpaenoid fish. Toxicon 2014; 88:21-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2014] [Revised: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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9
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Andrich F, Carnielli JBT, Cassoli JS, Lautner RQ, Santos RAS, Pimenta AMC, de Lima ME, Figueiredo SG. A potent vasoactive cytolysin isolated from Scorpaena plumieri scorpionfish venom. Toxicon 2010; 56:487-96. [PMID: 20493199 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2009] [Revised: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 05/06/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A new vasoactive cytolytic toxin, referred to as Sp-CTx, has been purified from the venom of the scorpionfish Scorpaena plumieri by a combination of gel filtration and anion exchange chromatographies. An estimation of Sp-CTx native molecular mass, performed by size exclusion chromatography, demonstrated that it is a 121 kDa protein. Further physicochemical studies revealed its glycoproteic nature and dimeric constitution, comprising subunits of approximately 65 kDa (MALDI-TOF-MS). Such protein has proved to possess a potent hemolytic activity on washed rabbit erythrocytes (EC(50) 0.46 nM), whose effect was strongly reduced after treatment with antivenom raised against stonefish venom -Synanceja trachynis (SFAV). This cross-reactivity has been confirmed by western blotting. Like S. plumieri whole venom (100 microg/mL), Sp-CTx (1-50 nM) caused a biphasic response on phenylephrine pre-contracted rat aortic rings, characterized by an endothelium- and dose-dependent relaxation phase followed by a contractile phase. The vasorelaxant activity has been abolished by l-NAME, demonstrating the involvement of nitric oxide on the response. We report here the first isolation of a cytolytic/vasoactive protein from scorpionfish venom and the data provided suggest structural and functional similarities between Sp-CTx and previously published stonefish hemolytic toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Andrich
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Laboratório de Venenos e Toxinas Animais (LVTA), ICB/UFMG, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte-MG, Brazil
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10
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Cardiovascular effects of scorpionfish (Scorpaena plumieri) venom. Toxicon 2009; 55:580-9. [PMID: 19879286 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2009] [Revised: 10/06/2009] [Accepted: 10/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate the cardiovascular activity of Scorpaena plumieri venom in both in vivo and in vitro models. In anesthetized rats, doses of the venom (14-216 microg protein/kg) induced a transient increase in the mean arterial pressure. However at higher dose (338 microg protein/kg) this effect was followed by a sudden hypotension and the animal evolved to death. The heart rate was temporarily increased and followed by bradycardia using doses > or =108 microg/kg. In isolated rat hearts the crude venom (5-80 microg protein) produced dose-dependent positive ventricular chronotropic, inotropic, lusitropic and coronary vasoconstriction responses. Partial purification of an active fraction (CF, cardiovascular fraction) which reproduced the cardiovascular effects induced by crude venom on isolated hearts was achieved by conventional gel filtration chromatography. Adrenergic blockades, prazosin and propranolol, significantly attenuated these responses. The coronary vasoconstriction response to CF was also attenuated by chemical endothelium denudation. In conclusion, the data showed that S. plumieri fish venom induces disorders in the cardiovascular system. It also suggests that alpha(1) and beta-adrenergic receptors, and the vascular endothelium, are involved at least partially, in these cardiac effects.
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11
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Yazawa K, Wang JW, Hao LY, Onoue Y, Kameyama M. Verrucotoxin, a stonefish venom, modulates calcium channel activity in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. Br J Pharmacol 2007; 151:1198-203. [PMID: 17572694 PMCID: PMC2189832 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0707340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Stonefish (Synanceia genus) are commonly found in shallow waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The venom of stonefish is stored in the dorsal fine spines and contains a proteinaceous toxin, verrucotoxin (VTX). The stings produced by the spines induce intense pain, respiratory weakness, damage to the cardiovascular system, convulsions and paralysis, sometimes leading to death. Although there are many studies on VTX, the mechanism(s) underlying the VTX-mediated cardiotoxicity is not yet fully understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the modulation of ion channels in cardiac tissue by VTX. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH The effects of VTX on changes in the voltage or current in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes were investigated using a patch clamp method. KEY RESULTS VTX (10 microg ml(-1)) prolonged the action potential duration by 2.5-fold. VTX increased L-type Ca(2+) currents (I (Ca(L))) in a concentration-dependent manner with a EC(50) value of 7 microg ml(-1) and a maximum increase of 3.1-fold. The non-selective beta-adrenoceptor antagonist, propranolol (1 microM) and the selective beta(1)-adrenoceptor antagonist, CGP20712A (10 microM) each abolished the effect of VTX (100 microg ml(-1)) on I (Ca(L)). Furthermore, the protein kinase A (PKA) antagonists H-89 (10 microM) and Rp-8-Br-cAMPS (30 microM) inhibited the effect of VTX on I (Ca(L)). CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS VTX modulates Ca(2+) channel activity through the beta-adrenoceptor-cAMP-PKA pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Yazawa
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine and Dental Science, Kagoshima University Kagoshima, Japan
- Author for correspondence:
| | - J-W Wang
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine and Dental Science, Kagoshima University Kagoshima, Japan
| | - L-Y Hao
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine and Dental Science, Kagoshima University Kagoshima, Japan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, China Medical University Shenyang, China
| | - Y Onoue
- Laboratory of Aquatic Resource Science, Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University Kagoshima, Japan
| | - M Kameyama
- Department of Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine and Dental Science, Kagoshima University Kagoshima, Japan
- Author for correspondence:
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Wang JW, Yazawa K, Hao LY, Onoue Y, Kameyama M. Verrucotoxin inhibits KATP channels in cardiac myocytes through a muscarinic M3 receptor-PKC pathway. Eur J Pharmacol 2007; 563:172-9. [PMID: 17362922 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2006] [Revised: 01/29/2007] [Accepted: 02/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Verrucotoxin is the major component of venom from the stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa). Stings from the dorsal spines of the stonefish produce intensive pain, convulsions, hypotension, paralysis, respiratory weakness and collapse of the cardiovascular system, occasionally leading to death. It has been reported that verrucotoxin might modulate ATP-sensitive K+ (KATP) current in frog atrial fibers. However, the mechanism by which verrucotoxin acts on KATP current remains unclear. In this study, we examined whether verrucotoxin inhibited KATP current in guinea pig ventricular myocytes, using the patch clamp method. Verrucotoxin suppressed KATP current induced by pinacidil (KATP channel opener) in a concentration-dependent manner, with a half maximum concentration of 16.3 microg/ml. The effect of verrucotoxin on KATP current was suppressed by atropine (1 microM), a muscarinic receptor antagonist, or by 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine (100 nM), a muscarinic M3 receptor antagonist. Furthermore, the effect of verrucotoxin on KATP current was attenuated by the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor chelerythrine (10 microM) and calphostin C (10 microM), yet not by the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) inhibitor H-89 (0.5 microM). These results suggest that verrucotoxin inhibits KATP current through the muscarinic M3 receptor-PKC pathway. These findings enhance our understanding of the toxic effects of verrucotoxin from the stonefish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Wu Wang
- Department of Physiology II, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima 890-8544, Japan
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14
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Abstract
There is an enormous diversity and complexity of venoms and poisons in marine animals. Fatalities have occurred from envenoming by sea snakes, jellyfish, venomous fish such as stonefish, cone snails, and blue-ringed octopus. Deaths have also followed ingestion of toxins in shellfish, puffer fish (Fugu), and ciguatoxin-containing fish. However antivenoms are generally only available for envenoming by certain sea snakes, the major Australian box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) and stonefish. There have been difficulties in characterizing the toxins of C. fleckeri venom, and there are conflicting animals studies on the efficacy of C. fleckeri antivenom. The vast majority of C. fleckeri stings are not life-threatening, with painful skin welts the major finding. However fatalities that do occur usually do so within 5 to 20 minutes of the sting. This unprecedented rapid onset of cardiotoxicity in clinical envenoming suggests that antivenom may need to be given very early (within minutes) and possibly in large doses if a life is to be saved. Forty years of anecdotal experience supports the beneficial effect of stonefish antivenom in relieving the excruciating pain after stonefish spine penetration. It remains uncertain whether stonefish antivenom is efficacious in stings from spines of other venomous fish, and the recommendation of giving the antivenom intramuscularly needs reassessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart J Currie
- Tropical Medicine and International Health Unit, Menzies School of Health Research, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.
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15
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Abstract
1. Of all the venomous fish known, the stonefish is one of the most commonly encountered by man. Studies on its venom started in the 1950s, but little work was performed after that until several groups revived interest in the venom in the 1980s after easier accessibility to the fish. 2. Stonefish venom is a mixture of proteins, containing several enzymes, including hyaluronidase of high specific activity. A purified stonefish hyaluronidase has been characterized. 3. Several of the effects of the crude venom have been isolated to a protein lethal factor that has cytolytic, neurotoxic and hypotensive activity. This protein is stonustoxin from Synanceja horrida, trachynilysin from Synanceja trachynis and verrucotoxin from Synanceja verrucosa. 4. The biochemical properties and activities of these protein lethal factors are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoon Eng Khoo
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 10 Medical Drive, Singapore.
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Sauviat MP, Meunier FA, Kreger A, Molgó J. Effects of trachynilysin, a protein isolated from stonefish (Synanceia trachynis) venom, on frog atrial heart muscle. Toxicon 2000; 38:945-59. [PMID: 10728832 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(99)00207-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The effects of trachynilysin (TLY), a protein toxin isolated from stonefish (Synanceia trachynis) venom, were studied on the electrical and mechanical activities of frog atrial fibres. TLY (1 microg/ml) hyperpolarized the membrane, shortened the action potential (AP) duration (APD), exerted a negative inotropic effect and elicited contracture. These effects did not develop in the presence of atropine. TLY shortened the APD of fibres isolated from a frog completely paralyzed with botulinum type A toxin, in the presence of Ca2+ but not when Ca2+ was replaced by Sr2+. TLY increased the basal and the peak of the fluorescence ratio of stimulated fibres loaded with fura-2. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed the existence of a diffuse innervation in atrial tissue. Our results suggest that TLY enhances the release of acetylcholine from atrial cholinergic nerve terminals and activates indirectly muscarinic receptors leading to a shortening of APD. They also show that the mechanical effects induced by TLY are due to an increase of the Ca2+ influx and to a rise in intracellular Ca2+ levels which leads to (i) a slowing of the Na+/Ca2+ exchange activity, which accounts for the contracture and (ii) the activation of a Ca2+-dependent K+ current involved in the APD shortening.
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Affiliation(s)
- M P Sauviat
- Unité INSERM 451, Laboratoire d'Optique Appliquée, Ecole Polytechnique-ENSTA, Centre de l'Yvette, Palaiseau, France.
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Church JE, Hodgson WC. Dose-dependent cardiovascular and neuromuscular effects of stonefish (Synanceja trachynis) venom. Toxicon 2000; 38:391-407. [PMID: 10669028 DOI: 10.1016/s0041-0101(99)00169-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
There has been recent debate regarding the labile nature of stonefish venoms and the pharmacology of their breakdown products. The present study examined the cardiovascular and neuromuscular effects of lyophilised venom, and conducted a preliminary investigation of freshly milked venom. Lyophilised venom (20 microg/ml) caused endothelium-dependent relaxation in rat aortae that was abolished by atropine (0.1 microM). In contrast, an endothelium-independent contractile response occurred in porcine coronary arteries. However, in the presence of atropine (10 nM), this became a relaxation response which was attenuated by the B2 antagonist FR-173657 (0.1 microM) or by a combination of idazoxan (1 microM) and propranolol (1 microM). In rat isolated atria, lyophilised venom (4 microg/ml) caused a biphasic inotropic response consisting of an initial decrease, and then increase, in force which were attenuated by atropine (0.5 microM) and propranolol (5 microM), respectively. The increase in force produced by venom was unaffected by reserpine pre-treatment suggesting a direct action at adrenoceptors. In the anaesthetised rat, lyophilised venom (1-300 microg/kg, i.v.), caused a dose-dependent depressor response, with a subsequent pressor response at higher concentrations (30-300 microg/kg, i.v.). In the presence of atropine (1 mg/kg, i.v.), the depressor response to venom was abolished, a transient pressor response unmasked and the secondary pressor response augmented. In the additional presence of prazosin (50 microg/kg, i.v.), the transient pressor response was abolished and the secondary pressor response attenuated. Lyophilised venom had no significant effect on nerve-evoked (10 microg/ml) or directly-evoked (100 microg/ml) twitches of the chick biventer cervicis muscle preparation. Milked venom (1 microl/ml) caused a biphasic response (i.e., an initial relaxation followed by contraction) in rat aortae, a contraction in porcine coronary arteries, complete cessation of rat isolated atrial activity and markedly inhibited both nerve-evoked and directly-evoked twitches of the chick biventer cervicis muscle preparation. In the anaesthetised rat, milked venom (15 microl/kg, i.v.) caused immediate cardiovascular collapse. It appears that the cardiovascular effects of stonefish venom are mediated by a dose-dependent action at muscarinic receptors and adrenoceptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Church
- Deparment of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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