Corticosteroids as an adjuvant to the chemotherapy of tuberculous meningitis

The spectrum of cerebrospinal fluid findings in tuberculous meningitis and their relation to severity, radiological features, and outcome

Objectives

The aim of the study was to evaluate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) findings in tuberculous meningitis (TBM) and correlate it with severity, radiological features, and outcome of TBM.

Materials and Methods

In a retrospective study, data from admitted TBM patients were analyzed, and findings of CSF examinations were recorded. The CSF was categorized as typical (protein 50-500 mg/dL, cells 50-500/mm3, and glucose 50% or lower of blood sugar); those above and below these values were categorized as increased or decreased, respectively. The CSF findings were correlated with stage of TBM, and 3-month outcome and radiological features. Paradoxical response was also noted.

Results

There were 111 patients with TBM (definite 34, highly probable 77). On admission, 20 patients were in Stage I, 63 in Stage II, and 28 in Stage III TBM. CSF cells were in typical range in 73, low in 27 and increased in 11 patients. Protein was in typical range in 92 patients decreased in 11 patients and increased in eight patients. Sugar was normal in 41 and reduced in 70 patients. CSF cells, glucose, and protein did not correlate with the severity of meningitis. Fifteen patients had normal initial magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Tuberculomas were present in 53 patients, hydrocephalus in 43 patients, basal exudates in 43 patients, and infarction in 44 patients. Mixed findings were present in 65 patients. The MRI features did not correlate with CSF. Second CSF was available after a median duration of 26 (13-276) days in 50 patients. The CSF cells were decreased in 20 and increased in 30 patients, protein increased in 30 and sugars decreased in 16 patients. Paradoxical worsening occurred in 27 patients. Fifty-one patients recovered completely, 41 partially, 15 had poor, three patients were lost to follow-up, and one died. CSF parameters did not correlate with 3-month outcome or paradoxical worsening. CSF parameters do not differ significantly between baseline and 1 month CSF, but cells and lymphocytes changed significantly between 1st month and 3rd month CSF.

Conclusion

Typical CSF findings were present in 66% and did not correlate severity of TBM, radiological features paradoxical worsening or 3-month outcome. CSF cell count decreased within 3 months of treatment.

Corticosteroids for managing tuberculous meningitis

BACKGROUND

Tuberculous meningitis is a serious form of tuberculosis (TB) that affects the meninges that cover a person's brain and spinal cord. It is associated with high death rates and with disability in people who survive. Corticosteroids have been used as an adjunct to antituberculous drugs to treat people with tuberculous meningitis, but their role has been controversial.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of corticosteroids as an adjunct to antituberculous treatment on death and severe disability in people with tuberculous meningitis.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register up to the 18 March 2016; CENTRAL; MEDLINE; EMBASE; LILACS; and Current Controlled Trials. We also contacted researchers and organizations working in the field, and checked reference lists.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials that compared corticosteroid plus antituberculous treatment with antituberculous treatment alone in people with clinically diagnosed tuberculous meningitis and included death or disability as outcome measures.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We independently assessed search results and methodological quality, and extracted data from the included trials. We analysed the data using risk ratios (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and used a fixed-effect model. We performed an intention-to-treat analysis, where we included all participants randomized to treatment in the denominator. This analysis assumes that all participants who were lost to follow-up have good outcomes. We carried out a sensitivity analysis to explore the impact of the missing data.

MAIN RESULTS

Nine trials that included 1337 participants (with 469 deaths) met the inclusion criteria.At follow-up from three to 18 months, steroids reduce deaths by almost one quarter (RR 0.75, 95% CI 0.65 to 0.87; nine trials, 1337 participants, high quality evidence). Disabling neurological deficit is not common in survivors, and steroids may have little or no effect on this outcome (RR 0.92, 95% CI 0.71 to 1.20; eight trials, 1314 participants, low quality evidence). There was no difference between groups in the incidence of adverse events, which included gastrointestinal bleeding, invasive bacterial infections, hyperglycaemia, and liver dysfunction.One trial followed up participants for five years. The effect on death was no longer apparent at this time-point (RR 0.93, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.12; one trial, 545 participants, moderate quality evidence); and there was no difference in disabling neurological deficit detected (RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.49 to 1.69; one trial, 545 participants, low quality evidence).One trial included human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive people. The stratified analysis by HIV status in this trial showed no heterogeneity, with point estimates for death (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.67 to 1.20; one trial, 98 participants) and disability (RR 1.23, 95% CI 0.08 to 19.07; one trial, 98 participants) similar to HIV-negative participants in the same trial.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Corticosteroids reduce mortality from tuberculous meningitis, at least in the short term.Corticosteroids may have no effect on the number of people who survive tuberculous meningitis with disabling neurological deficit, but this outcome is less common than death, and the CI for the relative effect includes possible harm. However, this small possible harm is unlikely to be quantitatively important when compared to the reduction in mortality.The number of HIV-positive people included in the review is small, so we are not sure if the benefits in terms of reduced mortality are preserved in this group of patients.

Adjunctive steroid therapy for managing pulmonary tuberculosis

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis causes approximately 8.6 million disease episodes and 1.3 million deaths worldwide per year. Although curable with standardized treatment, outcomes for some forms of tuberculosis are improved with adjunctive corticosteroid therapy. Whether corticosteroid therapy would be beneficial in treating people with pulmonary tuberculosis is unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate whether adjunctive corticosteroid therapy reduces mortality, accelerates clinical recovery or accelerates microbiological recovery in people with pulmonary tuberculosis.

SEARCH METHODS

We identified studies indexed from 1966 up to May 2014 by searching: Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group's trials register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, MEDLINE, EMBASE and LILACS using comparative search terms. We handsearched reference lists of all identified studies and previous reviews and contacted relevant researchers, organizations and companies to identify grey literature.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials and quasi-randomized control trials of recognized antimicrobial combination regimens and corticosteroid therapy of any dose or duration compared with either no corticosteroid therapy or placebo in people with pulmonary tuberculosis were included.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

At least two investigators independently assessed trial quality and collected data using pre-specified data extraction forms. Findings were reported as narrative or within tables. If appropriate, Mantel-Haenszel meta-analyses models were used to calculate risk ratios.

MAIN RESULTS

We identified 18 trials, including 3816 participants, that met inclusion criteria. When compared to taking placebo or no steroid, corticosteroid use was not shown to to reduce all-cause mortality, or result in higher sputum conversion at 2 months or at 6 months (mortality: RR 0.77, 95%CI 0.51 to 1.15, 3815 participants, 18 studies, low quality evidence; sputum conversion at 2 months RR 1.03, 95%CI 0.97 to 1.09, 2750 participants, 12 studies; at 6 months; RR1.01, 95%CI 1.01, 95%CI 0.98 to 1.04, 2150 participants, 9 studies, both low quality evidence). However, corticosteroid use was found to increase weight gain (data not pooled, eight trials, 1203 participants, low quality evidence), decrease length of hospital stay (data not pooled, three trials, participants 379, very low quality of evidence) and increase clinical improvement within one month (RR 1.16, 95% CI 1.09 to 1.24; five trials, 497 participants, low quality evidence).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

It is unlikely that adjunctive corticosteroid treatment provides major benefits for people with pulmonary tuberculosis. Short term clinical benefits found did not appear to be maintained in the long term. However, evidence available to date is of low quality. In order to evaluate whether adjunctive corticosteroids reduce mortality, or accelerate clinical or microbiological recovery in people with pulmonary tuberculosis further large randomized control trials sufficiently powered to detect changes in such outcomes are needed.

Drug Insight: steroids in CNS infectious diseases--new indications for an old therapy

Infectious diseases of the CNS lead to overwhelming inflammatory processes within the brain and spinal cord that contribute substantially to patient morbidity and mortality. Pharmacological strategies to modulate inflammation have been investigated, although the resulting guidelines have sometimes been contradictory. Steroids have been proposed as adjunctive treatments for bacterial meningitis, tuberculous meningitis and herpes simplex virus encephalitis. Well-designed randomized controlled trials have established dexamethasone as an adjunctive therapy for adult patients receiving antibiotics for bacterial meningitis, and physicians prescribing the initial antibiotics need to be aware of current guidelines. Morbidity and mortality in patients with tuberculous meningitis exceeds 50%. Steroid treatments reduce mortality through an as yet unknown mechanism, although their effects on morbidity are less clear. Herpes simplex virus encephalitis is also associated with considerable morbidity and mortality. Despite a lack of randomized trials, there is some evidence that steroids used alongside antiviral therapy might be beneficial in this condition. As we discuss in this Review, systemic steroid treatment is an important aspect of treatment regimens for CNS infectious diseases, and the recent literature provides guidelines for the use of steroids in combination with appropriate antimicrobial therapy.

Corticosteroids for managing tuberculous meningitis

BACKGROUND

Tuberculous meningitis, a serious form of tuberculosis that affects the meninges covering the brain and spinal cord, is associated with high mortality and disability among survivors. Corticosteroids have been used as an adjunct to antituberculous drugs to improve the outcome, but their role is controversial.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of corticosteroids as an adjunct to antituberculous treatment on death and severe disability in people with tuberculous meningitis.

SEARCH STRATEGY

In September 2007, we searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group Specialized Register, CENTRAL (The Cochrane Library 2007, Issue 3), MEDLINE, EMBASE, LILACS, and Current Controlled Trials. We also contacted researchers and organizations working in the field, and checked reference lists.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized controlled trials comparing a corticosteroid plus antituberculous treatment with antituberculous treatment alone in people with clinically diagnosed tuberculosis meningitis and which include death and/or disability as outcome measures.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

We independently assessed search results and methodological quality, and independently extracted data. We analysed the data using relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) and the fixed-effect model. We also conducted complete-case and best-worst case analyses.

MAIN RESULTS

Seven trials involving 1140 participants (with 411 deaths) met the inclusion criteria. All used dexamethasone or prednisolone. Overall, corticosteroids reduced the risk of death (RR 0.78, 95% CI 0.67 to 0.91; 1140 participants, 7 trials). Data on disabling residual neurological deficit from three trials showed that corticosteroids reduce the risk of death or disabling residual neurological deficit (RR 0.82, 95% CI 0.70 to 0.97; 720 participants, 3 trials). Adverse events included gastrointestinal bleeding, bacterial and fungal infections and hyperglycaemia, but they were mild and treatable.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Corticosteroids should be routinely used in HIV-negative people with tuberculous meningitis to reduce death and disabling residual neurological deficit amongst survivors. However, there is not enough evidence to support or refute a similar conclusion for those who are HIV positive.

WITHDRAWN: Steroids for treating tuberculous meningitis

BACKGROUND

Even though corticosteroids have been used alongside antituberculosis drugs for tuberculous meningitis (TBM) since the 1950s their role remains controversial. Some believe corticosteroids improve outcome while others point to the lack of supportive evidence. In patients who are immunocompromised because of HIV infection the risks and benefits of steroids are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of steroids on death and disability in patients with TBM.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Infectious Diseases Group specialized trials register (February 2005), The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (The Cochrane Library Issue 1, 2005), MEDLINE (1966 to February 2005), EMBASE (1980 to February 2005), and LILACS (February 2005).

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials of steroids in people on TB treatment for TBM.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two independent reviewers applied study selection criteria, assessed methodological quality and extracted data.

MAIN RESULTS

Six trials of 595 patients met the inclusion criteria. No study described allocation concealment. Steroids were associated with fewer deaths (relative risk [RR] 0.79; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.65 to 0.97) and a reduced incidence of death and severe residual disability (RR 0.58, 95% CI 0.38 to 0.88). Subgroup analysis suggests an effect on mortality in children (RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.62 to 0.96) but the results in a smaller number of adults are inconclusive (RR 0.96, 95% CI 0.50 to 1.84). There is little evidence that the severity of disease influences the effects of steroids on mortality.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Adjunctive steroids might be of benefit in patients with TBM. However, existing studies are small, and poor allocation concealment and publication bias may account for the positive results found in this review. No data are available on the use of steroids in HIV positive persons. Future placebo-controlled studies should include patients with HIV infection and should be large enough to assess both mortality and disability.

The effect of adjuvant steroid treatment on serial cerebrospinal fluid changes in tuberculous meningitis

Three recent studies found that corticosteroids improve clinical outcome and mortality in tuberculous meningitis (TBM), although the exact mechanism of action of the drug remains speculative. A number of reports on the effect of corticosteroids on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) findings in TBM have been published, often with conflicting results regarding serial cell counts and protein levels. As part of a controlled, randomized trial on the effect of oral prednisone on outcome in childhood TBM at our institution, CSF was collected and analysed weekly during the 1st month of treatment. We found no significant difference in serial CSF cell counts between the steroid and non-steroid groups in the study. However, the steroid group had significantly lower CSF protein and globulin levels after the 1st month of treatment, and a more steady rise in CSF glucose levels than the non-steroid group. Knowledge of the different CSF responses during the course of anti-tuberculosis therapy is important in clinical decision-making.

Effect of corticosteroids on intracranial pressure, computed tomographic findings, and clinical outcome in young children with tuberculous meningitis

OBJECTIVE

To study the effect of highdose prednisone on intracranial pressure (ICP), cranial computed tomographic (CT) findings, and clinical outcome in young children with moderate to severe tuberculous meningitis (TBM).

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective, controlled, randomized study.

METHODS

Continuous lumbar, cerebrospinal fluid pressure monitoring and contrasted CT scanning were performed in 141 consecutive children with TBM at admission. All children were then randomly allocated to a nonsteroid group (71 children) or a steroid group (70 children) who received prednisone (first 16 children, 2 mg/kg per day; next 54 children, 4 mg/kg per day) for the first month of treatment. ICP monitoring and CT scanning were repeated regularly, and clinical outcome was assessed after 6 months of antituberculosis treatment.

RESULTS

No statistically significant difference in ICP or the degree of hydrocephalus (as demonstrated by CT scan) was found between the steroid and nonsteroid groups after the first month of treatment. Basal ganglia infarcts developed in 16% of children in the steroid group and 24% in the nonsteroid group during the first month of treatment. Neither this incidence nor the eventual size of infarcts present at admission differed significantly between the two treatment groups. Single or multiple tuberculomas were seen on the first CT scans of 7 children (5%), whereas tuberculomas developed in 11 children (8%) at treatment. Both the response of the tuberculomas to treatment and the incidence of new tuberculomas were significantly improved by steroid therapy. Basal enhancement was also significantly less in the steroid group after 1 month of treatment. Steroids lowered mortality in stage III TBM significantly. Similarly, more surviving children in the steroid group had IQs of greater than 75 than did the those in the nonsteroid group. No significant difference was found in the incidence of motor deficit, blindness, or deafness.

CONCLUSIONS

Corticosteroids significantly improved the survival rate and intellectual outcome of children with TBM. Enhanced resolution of the basal exudate and tuberculomas by steroids was shown by serial CT scanning. Corticosteroids did not affect ICP or the incidence of basal ganglia infarction significantly.

Current and potential treatment of tuberculosis

A recent resurgence of interest in tuberculosis as a global health problem has accompanied the resurgence of tuberculosis in both industrialised and developing countries. It has also been demonstrated recently that tuberculosis treatment and control is one of the most cost effective of all medical interventions. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic and increasing resistance to antituberculous drugs complicate our response to the problem of tuberculosis. Chemotherapy with currently available agents is highly effective, not only in pulmonary tuberculosis in adults, but also in extrapulmonary disease, and in disease in children and even patients with concomitant HIV infection. Short course chemotherapy and intermittent therapy are as effective as older regimens. Measures, including directly observed therapy, to maximise compliance with therapy, are of utmost importance. An efficient programme which assures compliance with effective antituberculosis chemotherapy should be a priority for health spending even in those countries with fewest resources.

Randomized controlled trial of dexamethasone in tuberculous meningitis

SETTING

The patients admitted to the Neurology ward of the All India Institute of Medical Sciences Hospital.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the role of dexamethasone as an adjunct to antimicrobial therapy in the treatment of tuberculous meningitis.

DESIGN

A randomised controlled trial of 47 patients was conducted over a 13-month period. 41 patients completed the trial. Patients were stratified into mild, moderate and severe groups and randomly allocated to steroid and non-steroid groups. All patients received a standardized antituberculosis drug regime. The end point was 3 months, or death if earlier. The evaluation at the end point included survival, resolution of symptoms, sequelae and activities of daily living. Results were analysed using the Wilcoxon rank sum test.

RESULTS

The patients in the dexamethasone group fared better. 75% of this group had mild sequelae as opposed to 62% of the control group. Amongst the survivors, those who received dexamethasone sensorium improved earlier, and there was greater improvement in mental function and daily activities. The difference, however, did not reach statistical significance.

CONCLUSIONS

Dexamethasone appears useful as an adjunct in the treatment of tuberculous meningitis especially in patients who have severe disease. The results need confirmation by a larger trial.

Factors of prognostic significance in Chinese children with tuberculous meningitis

A study was undertaken to identify factors of prognostic importance for 199 Chinese children with tuberculous meningitis treated in Hong Kong between 1961 and 1984 inclusive. During the period under study rifampicin and then pyrazinamide were introduced into treatment regimens and intrathecal therapy was abandoned. An analysis of pretreatment characteristics and details of chemotherapy by multivariate logistic regression identified two independent variables that predicted prognosis, namely clinical stage at the time of diagnosis, and age. Changes in treatment policies and the introduction of new anti-tuberculosis drugs did not appear to influence prognosis.

Tuberculous meningitis--clinical and laboratory review of 100 patients

In developing countries tuberculous meningitis is a difficult infection to differentiate from other central nervous system (CNS) infections. This paper presents the history, physical findings, laboratory data, and clinical course of 100 patients who were admitted to a special ward and had CSF cultures positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Fifty-four patients were comatose when admitted and 76 had meningeal signs. Mean admission CSF values were WBC 531, glucose 23 mg/dl, and protein 166 mg/dl. Only two CSF AFB smears were positive. Sixty-one percent of the chest X-rays taken were consistent with pulmonary tuberculous and 39% were normal. Twenty-four patients died within the first week after admission, before the clinical diagnosis was made and anti-tuberculous therapy could be started. Fifty-three of 76 patients given antituberculous therapy died. Neurologic sequelae developed in 48% of the survivors. The high mortality and morbidity rates in this patient-group were due to the severity of illness on admission and the predominance of children (54%).

Use of intrathecal hyaluronidase in the management of tuberculous meningitis with hydrocephalus

A preliminary study to evaluate the efficacy of intrathecal hyaluronidase was carried out in nine children suffering from tuberculous meningitis with communicating hydrocephalus. This was followed by a randomized trial in which five cases were treated with intrathecal hyaluronidase, while six cases were treated by the insertion of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. No untoward reaction of any significance was noted. The results were judged in terms of improvement in the sensorium and mentation, in specific neurological deficit (e.g., visual impairment and hemiparesis), and in overall functional performance. Although most of the patients receiving hyaluronidase showed some improvement in the sensorium, only one of the nine preliminary cases and one of the five cases in the randomized trial showed a total recovery of function. Two of the six shunted patients, however, showed complete recovery. Shunt insertion led to further improvement in two of the nine preliminary cases who had failed to respond to treatment with hyaluronidase. This preliminary study shows that intrathecal hyaluronidase does, in most cases, lead to an improvement in the sensorium but does not offer any particular advantage over shunt insertion in terms of regression of specific neurological deficit or overall functional improvement.

Evaluation of rifampicin in the treatment of tuberculous meningitis in children

Of the 20 patients given rifampicin and isoniazid, 19 survived and one died. Twelve patients recovered from the disease without any significant neurologic defect. Seven patients had moderate to severe handicaps which included hemiparesis in four, hydrocephalus in two,mental retardation in three, and blindness in one. There was no hearing deficit. The average hospital stay in this group was 3-1/2 weeks. Among the 13 patients given streptomycin, PAS, and isoniazid, four are dead. Only three patients recovered with a completely good condition. The remainder had either single or multiple neurologic defects. The moderate degree of nerve deafness was also observed in two patients.

Corticotrofina e cortiomdes em neurologia: avaliação critica dos resultados em 518 pacientes hospitalizados

Com base no tratamento pela corticotrofina e corticóides de 518 pacientes internados no período de 1952 e 1967, os autores fazem a avaliação crítica dos resultados dessa terapêutica em diversas afecções do sistema nervoso. São as seguintes as afecções estudadas: moléstias desmielinizantes, polirradiculoneurite ,coréia aguda, mielose funicular, hipsarritmia, miastenia grave, polimiosite, neurotuberculose e neurocisticercose. Os medicamentos empregados foram o ACTH ou corticotrofina pelas vias venosa ou intramuscular, e a cortisona e derivados pelas vias oral ou parenteral. O uso de derivados da cortisona, especialmente o acetato de metilprednisolona, pela via intratecal constituirá objeto de outro estudo. Os resultados do tratamento hormonal foram analisados sob os aspectos curativo e preventivo. Neste último aspecto a análise se restringiu à prevenção de seqüelas nos casos de neurotuberculose e neurocisticercose. A avaliação dos efeitos terapêuticos obedeceu a critério clínico e, quando necessário, ficou subordinada ao estudo evolutivo dos exames complementares. Foram referidos apenas os resultados imediatos, observados pela condição de alta dos pacientes. Desse estudo os autores concluem: 1. A corticotrofina e/ou corticóides são empregados com resultados favoráveis no tratamento de diversas moléstias do sistema nervoso, tanto como terapêutica curativa como preventiva. 2. Os resultados em geral são de avaliação difícil e estão na dependência da natureza e caráter evolutivo da afecção e da época em que o tratamento é instituído relativamente ao início da sintomatologia. 3. Em relação ao tratamento curativo, as afecções agudas de natureza imunalérgica ou os surtos das neuropatías de evolução cíclica e as suscetíveis de agravação progressiva com manifestações paroxísticas foram as que melhor responderam à terapêutica hormonal. Certas moléstias que costumam evoluir com fases de agravação e cuja natureza parece estar ligada a fatores imunológicos, também responderam de modo favorável ao emprego do ACTH e/ou corticóides. 4. Conseqüentemente, melhores efeitos foram obtidos na coréia aguda, polirradiculoneurite, complicações neurológicas das vacinações, da coqueluche, da parotidite epidêmica e de febres eruptivas, nas crises paroxísticas e disritmia cerebral da hipsarritmia e na miastenia grave. Em ordem decrescente quanto aos benefícios proporcionados pela terapêutica hormonal, estão a esclerose múltipla e outras desmielinizações primárias. O número pequeno de casos não permitiu conclusão quanto à polimiosite. É de notar que, em relação às desmielinizações primárias, os melhores resultados foram obtidos quando o tratamento era aplicado no combate aos primeiros surtos de agravação da moléstia tornando-se menos eficiente nos surtos ulteriores. A mielose funicular foi a neuropatía que menos se beneficiou com o emprego isolado dos glicocorticóides. 5. Na meningencefalite tuberculosa subaguda ou crônica os resultados em geral não foram bons, porém nos casos recentes a associação da medicação específica ao ACTH ou corticóides, foi benéfica, tanto como terapêutica curativa como na prevenção de aderências pia-aracnóideas. 6. Na neurocisticercose os resultados de modo geral foram favoráveis, justificando amplamente o emprego dos hormônios glicocorticóides como terapêutica preventiva no sentido de limitar a formação de aderências. Usados com critério e com as necessárias precauções, o ACTH e os corticóides acarretaram índice significativamente baixo de complicações que, no entanto, foram quase sempre muito graves. 8. Com essas restrições a terapêutica hormonal constitui arma preciosa no arsenal terapêutico da Neurologia. Mesmo nos casos menos favoráveis, freqüentemente esses hormônios representam o único recurso disponível e o pouco que se obtiver será suficiente para justificar o seu emprego. Em certos casos de evolução dramática o uso do ACTH e/ou corticóides torna-se quase imperativo.