Investigation of uptake, translocation and fate of trichloroacetic acid in Norway spruce (Picea abies/L./Karst.) using 14C-labelling

Determination of trichloroacetic acid in environmental studies using carbon 14 and chlorine 36

Radioisotopes carbon 14 and chlorine 36 were used to elucidate the environmental role of trichloroacetic acid (TCA) formerly taken to be a herbicide and a secondary air pollutant with phytotoxic effects. However, use of 14C-labeling posed again known analytical problems, especially in TCA extraction from the sample matrix. Therefore--after evaluation of available methods--a new procedure using decarboxylation of [1,2-14C]TCA combined with extraction of the resultant 14C-chloroform with a non-polar solvent and its subsequent radiometric measurement was developed. The method solves previous difficulties and permits an easy determination of amounts between 0.4 and 20 kBq (10 - 500 ng g(-1)) of carrier-less [1,2-14C]TCA in samples from environmental investigations. The procedure is, however, not suitable for direct [36Cl]TCA determination in chlorination studies with 36Cl. Because TCA might be microbially degraded in soil during extraction and sample storage and its extraction from soil or needles is never complete, the decarboxylation method--i.e. 2 h TCA decomposition to chloroform and CO2 in aqueous solution or suspension in closed vial at 90 degrees C and pH 4.6 with subsequent CHCl3 extraction-is recommended here, estimated V < 7%. Moreover, the influence of pH and temperature on the decarboxylation of TCA in aqueous solution was studied in a broad range and its environmental relevance is shown in the case of TCA decarboxylation in spruce needles which takes place also at ambient temperatures and might amount more than 10-20% after a growing season. A study of TCA distribution in spruce needles after below-ground uptake shows the highest uptake rate into current needles which have, however, a lower TCA content than older needle-year classes, TCA biodegradation in forest soil leads predominatingly to CO2.

Fluxes of trichloroacetic acid through a conifer forest canopy

Controlled-dosing experiments with conifer seedlings have demonstrated an above-ground route of uptake for trichloroacetic acid (TCA) from aqueous solution into the canopy, in addition to uptake from the soil. The aim of this work was to investigate the loss of TCA to the canopy in a mature conifer forest exposed only to environmental concentrations of TCA by analysing above- and below-canopy fluxes of TCA and within-canopy instantaneous reservoir of TCA. Concentrations and fluxes of TCA were quantified for one year in dry deposition, rainwater, cloudwater, throughfall, stemflow and litterfall in a 37-year-old Sitka spruce and larch plantation in SW Scotland. Above-canopy TCA deposition was dominated by rainfall (86%), compared with cloudwater (13%) and dry deposition (1%). On average only 66% of the TCA deposition passed through the canopy in throughfall and stemflow (95% and 5%, respectively), compared with 47% of the wet precipitation depth. Consequently, throughfall concentration of TCA was, on average, approximately 1.4 x rainwater concentration. There was no significant difference in below-canopy fluxes between Sitka spruce and larch, or at a forest-edge site. Annual TCA deposited from the canopy in litterfall was only approximately 1-2% of above-canopy deposition. On average, approximately 800 microg m(-2) of deposited TCA was lost to the canopy per year, compared with estimates of above-ground TCA storage of approximately 400 and approximately 300 microg m(-2) for Sitka spruce and larch, respectively. Taking into account likely uncertainties in these values ( approximately +/- 50%), these data yield an estimate for the half-life of within-canopy elimination of TCA in the range 50-200 days, assuming steady-state conditions and that all TCA lost to the canopy is transferred into the canopy material, rather than degraded externally. The observations provide strong indication that an above-ground route is important for uptake of TCA specifically of atmospheric origin into mature forest canopies, as has been shown for seedlings (in addition to uptake from soil via transpiration), and that annualized within-canopy elimination is similar to that in controlled-dosing experiments.

Trichloroacetic acid in Norway spruce/soil-system. II. Distribution and degradation in the plant

Independently from its origin, trichloroacetic acid (TCA) as a phytotoxic substance affects coniferous trees. Its uptake, distribution and degradation were thus investigated in the Norway spruce/soil-system using 14C labeling. TCA is distributed in the tree mainly by the transpiration stream. As in soil, TCA seems to be degraded microbially, presumably by phyllosphere microorganisms in spruce needles. Indication of TCA biodegradation in trees is shown using both antibiotics and axenic plants.

Microbiological aspects of determination of trichloroacetic acid in soil

Soils have been shown to possess a strong microbial trichloroacetic acid (TCA)-degrading activity. High TCA-degradation rate was also observed during soil extraction with water. For correct measurements of TCA levels in soil all TCA-degrading activities have to be inhibited immediately after sampling before analysis. We used rapid freezing of soil samples (optimally in liquid nitrogen) with subsequent storage and slow thawing before analysis as an efficient technique for suppressing the degradation. Frozen soil samples stored overnight at -20 degrees C and then thawed slowly exhibited very low residual TCA-degrading activity for several hours. Omitting the above procedure could lead to the confusing differences between the TCA levels previously reported in the literature.

Uptake, translocation and fate of trichloroacetic acid in a Norway spruce/soil system

Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) is a secondary atmospheric pollutant formed by photooxidation of chlorinated solvents in the troposphere--it has, however, recently been ranked among natural organohalogens. Its herbicidal properties might be one of the factors adversely affecting forest health. TCA accumulates rapidly in conifer needles and influences the detoxification capacity in the trees. The aim of the investigations--a survey of which is briefly given here--was to elucidate the uptake, distribution and fate of TCA in Norway spruce. For this purpose young nursery-grown plants of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) were exposed to [1,2-14C]TCA and the fate of the compound was followed in needles, wood, roots, soil and air with appropriate radio-indicator methods. As shown by radioactivity monitoring, the uptake of TCA from soil by roots proceeded most rapidly into current needles at the beginning of the TCA treatment and was redistributed at later dates so that TCA content in older needles increased. The only product of TCA metabolism/biodegradation found in the plant/soil-system was CO(2) (and corresponding assimilates). TCA biodegradation in soil depends on TCA concentration, soil humidity and other factors.

Review of concentrations and chemistry of trichloroacetate in the environment

This paper reviews the concentrations of trichloroacetate (TCA) in the atmosphere-plant-soil system. Data originate mainly from Europe. The median TCA concentration in rainwater and canopy drip decreased until 1995. From then the median TCA concentration in rainwater remains rather constant while for canopy drip later data are not available. The same seems to hold for concentrations in air although a very limited data set is available. The median concentrations in coniferous needles and groundwater are constant for the period observed. The median TCA concentrations in soil decreased until 1992 and then remained constant.The TCA formation from chlorinated solvents in the atmosphere may explain a substantial percentage of the TCA amount in the atmosphere. The TCA concentrations in rainwater and canopy drip indicate that there will be other sources contributing to 10-50%. Waste incineration, biomass burning and natural formation in the marine boundary layer are potential candidate sources of TCA, but nothing can be said as yet on their TCA emission rates. Anthropogenic emissions of chlorine could also be a source.TCA can be formed from chlorinated solvents by biota. However, for coniferous trees the uptake of TCA from soil may be the predominant route. Biotic and abiotic reactions can cause to formation of TCA in soil, but also formation of TCA from chlorinated solvents by biota that excrete TCA, may contribute. Mass balance calculations of the bioactive soil top layer show that the production rate of TCA in certain soil types could be substantial. The mass balance calculations could not distinguish between natural and anthropogenic sources in soil.

Trichloroacetic acid in Norway spruce/soil-system. I. Biodegradation in soil

Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) as a phytotoxic substance affects health status of coniferous trees. It is known as a secondary air pollutant (formed by photooxidation of tetrachloroethene and 1,1,1-trichloroethane) and as a product of chlorination of humic substances in soil. Its break-down in soil, however, influences considerably the TCA level, i.e. the extent of TCA uptake by spruce roots. In connection with our investigations of TCA effects on Norway spruce, microbial processes in soil were studied using 14C-labeling. It was shown that TCA degradation in soil is a fast process depending on TCA concentration, soil properties, humidity and temperature. As a result, the TCA level in soil is determined by a steady state between uptake from the atmosphere, formation in soil, leaching and degradation. The process of TCA degradation in soil thus participates significantly in the chlorine cycle in forest ecosystems.

Trichloroacetic acid in the environment

Suppositions that the trichloroacetic acid (TCA, CCl3C(O)OH) found in nature was a consequence solely of the use of chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents prompted this critical review of the literature on its environmental fluxes and occurrences. TCA is widely distributed in forest soils (where it was rarely used as an herbicide) and measurements suggest a soil flux of 160 000 tonnes yr(-1) in European forests alone. TCA is also produced during oxidative water treatment and the global flux could amount to 55 000 tonnes yr(-1) (from pulp and paper manufacture, potable water and cooling water treatments). By contrast, the yields of TCA from chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents are small: from tetrachloroethene 13 600 tonnes yr(-1) and from 1,1,1-trichloroethane 4300 tonnes yr(-1) on a global basis, at the atmospheric burdens and removal rates typical of the late 1990s. TCA is ubiquitous in rainwater and snow. Its concentrations are highly variable and the variations cannot be connected with location or date. However, there is no significant difference between the concentrations found in Chile and in eastern Canada (by the same analysts), or between Malawi and western Canada, or between Antarctica and Switzerland, nor any significant difference globally between the concentrations in cloud, rain and snow (although local enhancement in fog water has been shown). TCA is present in old ice and firn. At the deepest levels, the firn was deposited early in the 19th century, well before the possibility of contamination by industrial production of reactive chlorine, implying a non-industrial background. This proposition is supported by plume measurements from pulp mills in Finland. TCA is ubiquitous in soils; concentrations are very variable but there are some indications that soils under coniferous trees contain higher amounts. The concentrations of TCA found in plant tissue are region-specific and may also be plant-specific, to the extent that conifers seem to contain more than other species. TCA is removed from the environment naturally. There is abundant evidence that soil microorganisms dehalogenate TCA and it is lost from within spruce needles with a half-life of 10 days. There is also recent evidence of an abiotic aqueous decarboxylation mechanism with a half-life of 22 days. The supposedly widespread effects of TCA in conifer needles are not shown in controlled experiments. At concentrations in the needles of Scots pine similar to those observed in needles in forest trees, changes consequent on TCA treatment of field laboratory specimens were almost all insignificant.