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Mammen M, Choi SK, Whitesides GM. Polyvalente Wechselwirkungen in biologischen Systemen: Auswirkungen auf das Design und die Verwendung multivalenter Liganden und Inhibitoren. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 1998. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1521-3757(19981016)110:20<2908::aid-ange2908>3.0.co;2-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 522] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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2
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Abstract
The ability of viruses to transfer macromolecules between cells makes them attractive starting points for the design of biological delivery vehicles. Virus-based vectors and sub-viral systems are already finding biotechnological and medical applications for gene, peptide, vaccine and drug delivery. Progress has been made in understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying virus entry, particularly in identifying virus receptors. However, receptor binding is only a first step and we now have to understand how these molecules facilitate entry, how enveloped viruses fuse with cells or non-enveloped viruses penetrate the cell membrane, and what happens following penetration. Only through these detailed analyses will the full potential of viruses as vectors and delivery vehicles be realised. Here we discuss aspects of the entry mechanisms for several well-characterised viral systems. We do not attempt to provide a fully comprehensive review of virus entry but focus primarily on enveloped viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mark Marsh
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 171 380 7807; fax: +44 171 380 7805; e-mail
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3
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Tolnay M, Tsokos GC. Complement receptor 2 in the regulation of the immune response. CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY AND IMMUNOPATHOLOGY 1998; 88:123-32. [PMID: 9714689 DOI: 10.1006/clin.1998.4552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Antigens coated with split products of C3, the result of complement activation, are capable of crosslinking the complement receptor 2 (CR2, CD21) and the antigen receptor on the surface of B cells simultaneously. This dual recognition leads to increased cell proliferation and differentiation and enhanced antibody production. CR2 is also considered to be a regulator of the B cell response to antigen. In this review we summarize the biology of the CR2 and focus on its essential role in generating an effective B cell response to antigenic stimuli. The involvement of CR2 in the pathophysiology of infectious and autoimmune diseases is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Tolnay
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Washington, DC, 20307, USA
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4
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Abstract
The etiology of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas (NHL) remains a controversial matter, but, in the last few years, considerable evidence suggests that aberrations of the immune system and viruses may act as etiologic agents, in at least some cases of NHL. In fact, patients with primary immuno-deficiencies, or those suffering from diseases characterized by autoimmune dysfunction, show an increased risk for the development of NHL. Several viruses have been identified as possible etiologic agents for NHL; one of the best studied is the Epstein-Barr virus, which was detected in cultures of tumor cells from patients with Burkitt's lymphoma. The pathogenetic potential of this virus is illustrated by its association with an increasing number of malignant diseases. In addition, the human T-cell lymphotropic virus family (HTLV), was also recognized as possible etiologic agents for several lymphomas, such as cutaneous T-cell lymphoma and T-cell leukemia-lymphoma syndrome (HTLV-I), and T-cell hairy cell leukemia (HTLV-II). Recently, the presence of hepatitis C virus infection has also been recognized in several hematological malignancies such as mixed cryoglobulinemia, low-grade malignant lymphomas and Waldenström's disease. The possible etiopathogenetic role of this virus in non-Hodgkin's lymphomas is discussed on the basis of molecular, clinical, and epidemiological considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Pozzato
- Institute of Medicina Clinica, University of Trieste, School of Medicine, Italy
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5
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Kalvenes MB, Haukenes G, Nysaeter G, Kalland KH, Myrmel H. Raised levels of antibodies to human viruses at the clinical onset of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. J Viral Hepat 1995; 2:159-64. [PMID: 7493312 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2893.1995.tb00023.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Patients with autoimmune chronic active hepatitis (AICAH) often have very high titres of antibodies to rubella and/or measles virus. In the present study a young girl at the clinical onset of AICAH exhibited very high titres of antibodies against influenza viruses A and B, parainfluenza viruses, rubella virus and varicella-zoster virus. The titres normalized over 2 months except for rubella and varicella-zoster antibodies. Strong reactivities were seen against the rubella structural proteins E1, E2 and C in Western blot but IgM antibodies were not demonstrated. Total IgG was increased with normal ratios of subclasses. The IgG1 was the dominant antibody to E1 and E2, while IgG4 dominated the anti-C response. There was no significant shift in subclass reactivities over one year from onset. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR), using a nested primer set, was negative for rubella virus RNA in a liver biopsy obtained at the clinical onset and in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) 1 year later. Co-cultivation experiments using PBMC and permissive cell lines were also negative for rubella virus. Hence, in the very early phase of AICAH there may be a transiently enhanced antibody response to various unrelated viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Kalvenes
- National Institute for Research in Virology, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Gade Instituté, University of Bergen, Norway
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6
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Haukenes G, Viggen B, Boye B, Kalvenes MB, Flø R, Kalland KH. Viral antibodies in infectious mononucleosis. FEMS IMMUNOLOGY AND MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY 1994; 8:219-24. [PMID: 8004058 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.1994.tb00446.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Patients with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infectious mononucleosis (IM) usually develop heterophilic antibodies and some autoantibodies. Antibodies to rubella, measles, adeno-, entero-, herpes simplex, cytomegalo- and varicella-zoster viruses were titrated in sera from IM patients and matched healthy controls using the complement fixation test (CFT) and the haemagglutination inhibition test. Except for herpes simplex virus and cytomegalovirus, the IM sera had significantly higher arithmetical and geometrical mean antibody titres and showed in most cases higher antibody prevalences in the CFT. The titre rise was most pronounced for rubella and measles antibodies, between 2- and 3-fold. There were no cases of very high titres occasionally seen in IM. The IM sera had higher total IgG serum levels than the controls, 17.27 g/l and 11.8 g/l, respectively (P < 0.001). The present data show that in addition to previously reported high levels of some autoantibodies and of heterophilic antibodies, there is a more general increase in IgG antibodies to commonly occurring viruses. This increase is most likely due to the polyclonal activation of B-lymphocytes following the binding of EBV to the complement receptor CR2 (CD21). When due consideration is given to the possible occasional occurrence of a false positive rubella IgM test, the raised antibody-titres will most likely not interfere with routine diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Haukenes
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Gade Institute, Bergen, Norway
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8
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Franzke S, Calderone RA, Schaller K. Isolation of avirulent clones of Candida albicans with reduced ability to recognize the CR2 ligand C3d. Infect Immun 1993; 61:2662-9. [PMID: 8500905 PMCID: PMC280898 DOI: 10.1128/iai.61.6.2662-2669.1993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Four clones of the yeast Candida albicans, isolated on the basis of their tolerance to clotrimazole, were compared with their parental strains in terms of growth, morphology, virulence, and cell surface complement receptor activity. In a newly described synthetic medium, these clones, designated C1, C2, N, and P, produced germ tubes or pseudohyphae, but no true hyphae, in a pattern which was specific for each strain. The growth of each clone at 37 degrees C, under conditions which favor the filamentous growth form of the organism, was equal to that of the parental strain (H12). The pathogenicity of each clone was tested in an intravenous mouse model. None of the mice infected with the tolerant clones but all of the mice infected with H12 developed severe renal candidiasis after infection with 1.4 x 10(6) to 2.0 x 10(6) CFU/ml. The number of CFU of each clone from the mouse kidney was reduced about 3 or 4 orders of magnitude in comparison with the wild type. As a correlate, we measured the complement receptor activity (CR2 and CR3) of each clone. The C3 ligands, iC3b and C3d, were conjugated to sheep erythrocytes (E) sensitized with antibody (A) to the erythrocytes (EA). We found that all tolerant clones showed reduced recognition of C3d-bearing sheep erythrocytes (EAC3d) in rosetting assays. Clone P showed more than an 80% reduction in rosetting of EAC3d in comparison with H12 cells. In contrast, recognition of iC3b (EAiC3b) by each of the clones was similar to that by H12 cells. When dithiothreitol extracts of clone P and H12 were compared by immunoblot, both quantitative and qualitative differences in reactivities were observed with antibodies specific for the Candida C3d receptor and with antiserum from a patient with chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Franzke
- Institut für Mikrobiologie, Universität Hannover, Germany
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McNearney TA, Ebenbichler CF, Tötsch M, Dierich MP. Expression of complement receptor 2 (CR2) on HTLV-1-infected lymphocytes and transformed cell lines. Eur J Immunol 1993; 23:1266-70. [PMID: 8500522 DOI: 10.1002/eji.1830230611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The expression of complement receptor 2 (CR2) has been demonstrated in established HTLV-1-transformed cell lines and in 12 studied de novo infected peripheral blood lymphocytes cultures, using 2 HTLV-1 sources. The simultaneous detection of CR2 and HTLV-1 antigens in both co-cultivated and supernatant-infected peripheral blood lymphocytes suggest that the increased CR2 expression is in tandem with the increasing HTLV-1 antigen expression. CR2 up-regulation seen during polyclonal activation is presumably in response to a viral protein, although a cellular factor has not been ruled out. Increasing CR2 expression during early infection suggests its possible involvement in selection or development of subsequent transformation events. Variable levels of CR2 in immortalized cell lines argue against its obligate expression of function in the maintenance of the transformed state. The expression of CR2 in cellular activation of T cells may be stage restricted. This study also expands the cellular distribution for CR2.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A McNearney
- Institut für Hygiene, Leopold-Franzens Universität, Innsbruck, Austria
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10
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Abstract
The cell surface of Candida albicans is a complex mosaic of polysaccharide and protein, of which mannoproteins constitute the major antigens and host cell recognition molecules. One group of mannoproteins is known as 'adhesins' and has properties similar to lectins and integrins. The adhesins recognize either host cell fucosyl glycosides or peptides containing the amino acid sequence arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD peptides).
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Calderone
- Dept of Microbiology, Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, DC 20007-2197
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11
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Pallesen G, Hamilton-Dutoit SJ, Zhou X. The association of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) with T cell lymphoproliferations and Hodgkin's disease: two new developments in the EBV field. Adv Cancer Res 1993; 62:179-239. [PMID: 8109318 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(08)60319-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- G Pallesen
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Aarhus University Hospital, Denmark
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12
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Simon HU, Higgins EA, Demetriou M, Datti A, Siminovitch KA, Dennis JW. Defective expression of CD23 and autocrine growth-stimulation in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-transformed B cells from patients with Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS). Clin Exp Immunol 1993; 91:43-9. [PMID: 8380367 PMCID: PMC1554645 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.1993.tb03351.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
WAS is an X-linked, recessive, immune deficiency syndrome, characteristically associated with lymphocyte and platelet dysfunction. Peripheral B lymphocytes from WAS patients are nonresponsive to polysaccharide antigens and show reduced numbers of cells expressing the integral membrane glycoprotein, CD23. The release of CD23 proteolytic fragments, so-called soluble CD23 (sCD23), by B lymphoblasts and EBV-transformed B cell lines has previously been described, and these fragments have been shown to stimulate autocrine growth of these cells. We have found that the surface expression of CD23 is reduced on WAS compared with control EBV-B cells. Surface CD23 levels were reduced two-fold in four WAS cell lines (group I) and nine-fold in four other lines (group II). Group II WAS cell lines also showed reduced growth rates in serum-free medium when compared with group I cell lines and EBV-B cell lines from eight normal subjects. In contrast to the group II WAS lines, group I and EBV-B cells from normal individuals produced an autocrine-growth factor activity which could be absorbed by anti-CD23 antibodies. Immunoprecipitation of sCD23 from culture supernatants confirmed that group I WAS cell lines produced less sCD23, particularly the 37K fragment which was prevalent in control EBV-B cells. Northern analysis showed that CD23 mRNA levels were increased three-fold in group I and unchanged in group II WAS compared with normal EBV-B cell lines, suggesting that decreased surface expression in WAS EBV-B cells reflects post-transcriptional events. Together these results suggest that reduced cell surface expression and aberrant proteolysis of CD23 occurs in WAS patients' B lymphocytes and may contribute to impaired immune function in these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- H U Simon
- Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Rogers RP, Strominger JL, Speck SH. Epstein-Barr virus in B lymphocytes: viral gene expression and function in latency. Adv Cancer Res 1992; 58:1-26. [PMID: 1312289 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-230x(08)60288-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
MESH Headings
- Adolescent
- Adult
- Animals
- Antigens, Viral/genetics
- B-Lymphocytes/microbiology
- B-Lymphocytes/pathology
- Base Sequence
- Burkitt Lymphoma/epidemiology
- Burkitt Lymphoma/microbiology
- Carcinoma/epidemiology
- Carcinoma/microbiology
- Cell Line
- Cell Transformation, Neoplastic/genetics
- Cell Transformation, Viral
- Child
- Child, Preschool
- Gene Expression Regulation, Viral
- Genes, Viral
- Herpesviridae Infections/epidemiology
- Herpesviridae Infections/microbiology
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/genetics
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/isolation & purification
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/pathogenicity
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/physiology
- Humans
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Nasopharyngeal Neoplasms/epidemiology
- Nasopharyngeal Neoplasms/microbiology
- Primates
- RNA, Viral/biosynthesis
- RNA, Viral/genetics
- Tumor Virus Infections/epidemiology
- Tumor Virus Infections/microbiology
- Viral Proteins/biosynthesis
- Viral Proteins/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- R P Rogers
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences, University of North Carolina School of Dentistry, Chapel Hill 27514
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Moore MD, Cannon MJ, Sewall A, Finlayson M, Okimoto M, Nemerow GR. Inhibition of Epstein-Barr virus infection in vitro and in vivo by soluble CR2 (CD21) containing two short consensus repeats. J Virol 1991; 65:3559-65. [PMID: 1645784 PMCID: PMC241353 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.65.7.3559-3565.1991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The extracellular domain of CR2, the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)/C3d receptor of B lymphocytes, contains 15 or 16 tandemly arranged short consensus repeat elements (SCR). Recombinant CR2 proteins containing SCR 1 and 2 fused to Staphylococcus aureus protein A (PA-CR2) and to murine complement factor H SCR 20 (CR2FH) were expressed in Escherichia coli and in insect cells, respectively. These recombinant CR2 molecules retained functional activity as indicated by their ability to bind to C3dg in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and to inhibit EBV gp350/220 binding to B cells. PA-CR2 and CR2FH were as efficient in blocking EBV gp350/220 binding as the full-length CR2 extracellular domain, indicating that the first two SCR of CR2 contain the majority of the ligand binding activity of the receptor. PA-CR2 and CR2FH inhibited EBV-induced B-cell proliferation in vitro and blocked the development of EBV-induced lymphoproliferative disease in severe combined immunodeficient mice reconstituted with human lymphocytes. These studies indicate that soluble forms of truncated CR2 proteins may have potential therapeutic value in the treatment of EBV-induced lymphoproliferative disorders in humans that involve viral replication.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antigens, Differentiation, B-Lymphocyte/chemistry
- Antigens, Differentiation, B-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- Cell Transformation, Viral
- Complement C3b/metabolism
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/growth & development
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/metabolism
- Immunoglobulins/biosynthesis
- Mice
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Peptide Fragments/metabolism
- Receptors, Complement/chemistry
- Receptors, Complement/metabolism
- Receptors, Complement 3d
- Receptors, Virus/metabolism
- Recombinant Fusion Proteins/metabolism
- Solubility
- Viral Envelope Proteins/chemistry
- Viral Envelope Proteins/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Moore
- Department of Immunology, Scripps Clinic and Research Foundation, La Jolla, California 92037
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Burrows PD, Kubagawa H, Nishimoto N, Kerr WG, Borzillo GV, Hendershot LM, Cooper MD. Differences in human B cell differentiation. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1991; 292:215-26. [PMID: 1950773 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-5943-2_24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P D Burrows
- Department of Pediatrics, Medicine and Microbiology University of Alabama, Birmingham
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Abstract
CR2, a membrane glycoprotein, is one of a number of cell-surface proteins which bind activation and processing fragments of the complement system. CR2, which is found on normal B lymphocytes, follicular dendritic cells in lymphoid organs, and epithelial cells, interacts preferentially with C3dg, the terminal activation/processing fragment of the third complement component. Attachment of C3dg to CR2 brings complement activators, bearing covalently bound C3dg, into direct membrane contact with CR2-bearing cells. Epstein-Barr virus, a human herpesvirus, also binds to CR2 on B lymphocytes. Attachment of EBV is followed by infection. CR2 has been purified and the binding properties of its ligands analyzed. Monoclonal antibodies have been developed and used to probe the structural correlates of CR2 functions. CR2 has been molecularly cloned and its primary amino acid sequence deduced. These data indicate that it shares characteristic structural features with a number of other complement and non-complement cell membrane and plasma proteins. Several of the complement-associated proteins in this family possess regulatory functions; they are encoded by linked genes which have been localized to band q32 on chromosome 1. CR2 has been expressed in primate and rodent cells by transfection of cDNA in antigenically and functionally intact form. It has also been expressed in soluble form and its structure, electron microscopic appearance and binding characteristics analyzed in detail. The present state of knowledge of the structure and genetics of CR2 and current understanding of its biologic functions are summarized here.
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Affiliation(s)
- N R Cooper
- Department of Immunology, Research Institute of Scripps Clinic, La Jolla, California
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