Self-Attention and Behavior: A Review and Theoretical Update

Attention Mechanism and LSTM Network for Fingerprint-Based Indoor Location System

The demand for precise indoor localization services is steadily increasing. Among various methods, fingerprint-based indoor localization has become a popular choice due to its exceptional accuracy, cost-effectiveness, and ease of implementation. However, its performance degrades significantly as a result of multipath signal attenuation and environmental changes. In this paper, we propose an indoor localization method based on fingerprints using self-attention and long short-term memory (LSTM). By integrating a self-attention mechanism and LSTM network, the proposed method exhibits outstanding positioning accuracy and robustness in diverse experimental environments. The performance of the proposed method is evaluated under two different experimental scenarios, which involve 2D and 3D moving trajectories, respectively. The experimental results demonstrate that our approach achieves an average localization error of 1.76 m and 2.83 m in the respective scenarios, outperforming the existing state-of-the-art methods by 42.67% and 31.64%.

BiGRUD-SA: Protein S-sulfenylation sites prediction based on BiGRU and self-attention

S-sulfenylation is a vital post-translational modification (PTM) of proteins, which is an intermediate in other redox reactions and has implications for signal transduction and protein function regulation. However, there are many restrictions on the experimental identification of S-sulfenylation sites. Therefore, predicting S-sulfoylation sites by computational methods is fundamental to studying protein function and related biological mechanisms. In this paper, we propose a method named BiGRUD-SA based on bi-directional gated recurrent unit (BiGRU) and self-attention mechanism to predict protein S-sulfenylation sites. We first use AAC, BLOSUM62, AAindex, EAAC and GAAC to extract features, and do feature fusion to obtain original feature space. Next, we use SMOTE-Tomek method to handle data imbalance. Then, we input the processed data to the BiGRU and use self-attention mechanism to do further feature extraction. Finally, we input the data obtained to the deep neural networks (DNN) to identify S-sulfenylation sites. The accuracies of training set and independent test set are 96.66% and 95.91% respectively, which indicates that our method is conducive to identifying S-sulfenylation sites. Furthermore, we use a data set of S-sulfenylation sites in Arabidopsis thaliana to effectively verify the generalization ability of BiGRUD-SA method, and obtain better prediction results.

Self-Awareness and Self-Consciousness: A Review from the Perspective of Social Psychology

The terms of self-awareness and self-consciousness, which have been mentioned under various different names for centuries, they are also studied experimentally in social psychology. Within the concept of this study, the information about descriptions, raised theories, suggested concepts, significant studies and adjusted scales on these terms are reviewed from the perspective of social psychology. Although there are various different descriptions of these terms under various disciplines and a wide range of relevant literature, this study is approached only from the perspective of social psychology and limited with the most efficient studies included in the published social psychology literature. The review shall be an enlightening source for the researchers studying on social psychology and the self-concept and is concluded with suggestions on further research interests.

Why do good soldiers in good organizations behave wrongly? The vicarious licensing effect of perceived corporate social responsibility

Purpose

While most corporate social responsibility (CSR) research has focused on its positive effects, the potential “dark side” of CSR has received scant attention. Grounded in vicarious moral licensing theory and insights from related literature, the current study examines how employees' perceptions of external CSR could result in unintentional negative consequences like unethical pro-organizational behavior via psychological entitlement. The study also investigates the direct and conditional effects of private self-awareness.

Design/methodology/approach

A two-wave survey of 609 full-time employees from various occupations was conducted to empirically test the hypotheses. Several techniques and remedies were applied to control the quality of the sample data and mitigate the effects of potential common method bias.

Findings

The results demonstrate that unethical pro-organizational behavior can be an unintentional negative outcome of perceived external CSR, and psychological entitlement mediates the relationship.

Research limitations/implications

This work contributes to the moral licensing literature by examining vicarious moral licensing in the work domain. It offers several new and significant implications for research on CSR, psychological entitlement, and unethical pro-organizational behavior. The results suggest that managers should be mindful of unethical pro-organizational behavior as a potential negative consequence of external CSR engagement.

Originality/value

This study is among the first attempts to examine vicarious moral licensing in the work domain and investigates a largely neglected research area – the negative aspect of external CSR.

How self-awareness is connected to less experience of action crises in personal goal pursuit

In this research, we applied a differential perspective to the study of action crises, i.e., being in an intra-psychic decisional conflict whether to pursue or abandon a goal once difficulties in its pursuit arise. In two studies, we investigated the role of individuals’ levels of self-awareness when experiencing such action crises. Both among professional ballet dancers (daily diary, Study 1) and university undergraduates (preregistered experience sampling, Study 2), individuals with greater levels of (dispositional and situational) self-awareness showed an adaptive, that is, problem-solving oriented way of dealing with difficulties in the pursuit of their (training or study) goals. As a consequence, self-awareness contributed to less experience of action crisis during goal pursuit and, as a result, led to better goal performance.

Innovative online learning strategies for the successful construction of student self-awareness during the COVID-19 pandemic: Merging TAM with TPB

The ongoing Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic presents several challenges to the education system including technical, cognitive, managerial, and behavioral ones. As a result of these pressures, education systems are undergoing dramatic changes. The persistent state of the pandemic leading to anincrease in connectivity between teachers and students' devices, and the growth of online learning, is changing how students learn and the risks they have to manage themselves. The education sector typically employs some technical models to assess students' attitudes. Moreover, there is an ongoing intention to use online learning. In addition to technological factors, psychological factors were incorporated into the assessment. And intentions and attitudes are from a cognitive standpoint. Based on empirical research on online learning conducted among university students under epidemic normalization, the main goal of this paper is to examine the relationship between self-awareness and the willingness to use it continuously. During COVID-19 pandemic, the research framework created for this study was tested on 429 college students. The integrated Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) model's hypotheses were empirically examined. It was found that self-awareness and the intention to use online learning during the epidemic are consistently related. Self-awareness profoundly and significantly impacts the decision to continue using online learning. The study's findings can gauge participants' intent to continue. This study's result can help assess the intention to continue to use online learning during COVID-19.This can help provide more valid assessment results beneficial for the management of online learning.

Reducing Resistance to Narrative Persuasion About Binge Drinking: The Role of Self-Activation and Habitual Drinking Behavior

This study explores the effects of habitual health risk behaviors and self-activation on resistance to narrative persuasion. In two experiments, heavier drinkers were more resistant to an anti-binge-drinking narrative public service announcement (PSA) in which a binge drinker suffers a negative outcome. Specifically, heavier drinkers were more likely to generate counterarguments, unrealism judgments, and negative evaluations about the message compared to lighter drinkers or nondrinkers. However, activating self-concept when processing the persuasive narrative reduced unrealism judgments and negative evaluations, particularly among heavier drinkers. Self-activation also decreased perceived freedom threat among both heavier and lighter drinkers, which further led to higher perceived risk of binge drinking. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

A temporary deficiency in self-control: Can heightened motivation overcome this effect?

Self‐control is important for everyday life and involves behavioral regulation. Self‐control requires effort, and when completing two successive self‐control tasks, there is typically a temporary drop in performance in the second task. High self‐reported motivation and being made self‐aware somewhat counteract this effect—with the result that performance in the second task is enhanced. The current study explored the relationship between self‐awareness and motivation on sequential self‐control task performance. Before employing self‐control in an antisaccade task, participants initially applied self‐control in an incongruent Stroop task or completed a control task. After the Stroop task, participants unscrambled sentences that primed self‐awareness (each started with the word “I”) or unscrambled neutral sentences. Motivation was measured after the antisaccade task. Findings revealed that, after exerting self‐control in the incongruent Stroop task, motivation predicted erroneous responses in the antisaccade task for those that unscrambled neutral sentences, and high motivation led to fewer errors. Those primed with self‐awareness were somewhat more motivated overall, but motivation did not significantly predict antisaccade performance. Supporting the resource allocation account, if one was motivated—intrinsically or via the manipulation of self‐awareness—resources were allocated to both tasks leading to the successful completion of two sequential self‐control tasks.

Objective Self-Awareness Theory: Recent Progress and Enduring Problems

Objective self-awareness theory has undergone fundamental changes in the 3 decades since Duval and Wicklund's (1972) original formulation. We review new evidence that bears on the basic tenets of the theory. Many of the assumptions of self-awareness theory require revision, particularly how expectancies influence approach and avoidance of self-standard discrepancies; the nature of standards, especially when they are changed; and the role of causal attribution in directing discrepancy reduction. However, several unresolved conceptual issues remain; future theoretical and empirical directions are discussed.

Effect of Private Self-Awareness on Negative Affect and Self-Referent Attribution: A Quantitative Review

A meta-analysis was conducted to examine the effect of private self-awareness on negative affect and attributions of responsibility to the self. Results of studies manipulating self-awareness using stimuli such as a mirror and studies employing the private subscale of the Self-Consciousness Scale (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) as a measure of self-consciousness were summarized and compared. A small effect size was found for the effect of private self-awareness for both negative affect and self-referent attribution; the effect was equivalent across mirror and self-report operationalizations of private self-awareness. Moderator analyses revealed that these effects were stronger for women, particularly for studies that used the self-report operationalization and those that investigated self-referent attribution.

Social Self-Regulation

The social identity and self-awareness approaches to group members' behavior are described. It is suggested that identity salience should not be assumed to have direct effects on behavior. A model is presented that attempts to address this problem through an integration of the social identity (specifically, self-categorization theory) and self-awareness approaches. This model distinguishes between salience of self; a perceptual/interpretive process giving rise to particular self-images, and attention to self behavioral regulation in relation to particular self-selected goals or standards. The model has greater flexibility and wider applicability to individuals' collective behavior than either the social identity or the self-awareness approach alone.

Different Selves Have Different Effects: Self-Activation and Defensive Social Comparison

Three studies show that different forms of self-activation have differential influences on the processing of social comparison information. Activating neutral self-conceptions results in defensive processing of threatening social comparison information (Study 1). Participants maintain favorable selfevaluations in the face of upward comparison and rate the upward target of comparison negatively. Activating positive selfconceptions results in nondefensive processing of threatening social comparison information (Study 2). Participants endorse negative self-evaluations following upward comparison and rate the upward target of comparison positively. Activating negative self-conceptions maximizes defensive processing of threatening social comparison information (Study 3). Participants maintain favorable self-evaluations in the face of upward comparison and rate both upward and downward targets of comparison negatively. These results are discussed in terms of their implications for strategies to maintain self-esteem in the face of threatening comparisons.

Terror Management and Self-Awareness: Evidence that Mortality Salience Provokes Avoidance of the Self-Focused State

Two studies assessed the terror management hypothesis that when mortality is salient, people will avoid stimuli that increase self-awareness. In Study 1, we measured the length of time that participants wrote about either their death or an exam in cubicles that either did or did not contain a large mirror. In Study 2, participants completed either a death anxiety scale or a future concerns scale and then wrote a story fostering either an internal or external focus of attention. As predicted, in Study 1, the self-focusing stimulus reduced the amount of time that participants spent in the cubicles contemplating their mortality. In Study 2, mortality-salient participants wrote less when the task prompted an internal focus of attention than when it prompted an external focus. Across both studies, no differences emerged between participants in the control conditions. Implications of this research for understanding the relationship between terror management processes and self-awareness are briefly discussed.

Self-Awareness and the Emotional Consequences of Self-Discrepancies

Several self theories explore the effects of discrepant self-beliefs on motivation and emotion. This research intersected two self theories: self-discrepancy theory and objective self-awareness theory. Self-discrepancy theory predicts that ideal and ought discrepancies cause different negative emotions; objective self-awareness theory predicts that high self-awareness will strengthen the relationship between self-discrepancies and emotions. People (N =112) completed measures of self-discrepancies and emotions (dejection, agitation, positive affect, and negative affect). Self-focused attention was manipulated with a large mirror. When self-awareness was low, self-discrepancies had weak, nonsignificant relations to emotion. When self-awareness was high, however, self-discrepancies strongly predicted emotional experience. These effects were general—ideal and ought discrepancies affected emotions because of their substantial shared variance, not their unique variance. Implications for theories of self-discrepancies and emotions are considered.

Public Self-Focus and Sex Differences in Behavioral Self-Handicapping: Does Increasing Self-Threat Still Make it “Just a Man’s Game?”

The present study examined the effects of public self-focus and participants’ sex on self-handicapping behavior. Research in the area of self-handicapping has consistently shown that men alone tend to self-handicap behaviorally. Because conditions of public self-focus tend to make the evaluative implications of per formance more salient, the authors hypothesized that people would self-handicap more when they are self-focused (as opposed to other-focused). Men and women were presented with an important intellectual evaluation and were allowed to practice for the upcoming test as much as they wanted. Results showed that men self-handicap more when they are self-focused but women do not behaviorally self-handicap under self-or other-focused conditions. Heightened concern over possible failure in self-focused conditions appeared to be the critical mediator in encouraging self-handicapping behavior among men.

The Measurement and Conceptualization of Mood Awareness: Monitoring and Labeling One's Mood States

The construct of mood awareness is presented as a form of attention directed toward one's mood states. Two dimensions of mood awareness were investigated through the development and validation of the Mood Awareness Scale. Mood monitoring refers to a tendency to scrutinize and focus on one's moods, whereas mood labeling refers to the ability to identify and categorize one's moods. The role of these two dimensions in self-reported affective experience was explored in four studies using various measures of personality, affect, and mood regulation. Mood monitoring predicted the experience of negative affect, neuroticism, intense affective reactions, and greater rumination on negative mood. Mood labeling predicted the experience of positive affect, extraversion, high self-esteem, and greater satisfaction with social support. The usefulness of these dimensions for predicting affective outcomes is discussed.

Attentional Effects on Mood are Moderated by Chronic Self-Conception Valence

Positive and negative self-conception subjects rated their mood under either self-focused attention or other-focused attention conditions. Self-focused attention was partially induced by instructing subjects to write a story about themselves, whereas other-focused attention was partially elicited by instructing subjects to write a story about an acquaintance. Attentional effects on mood were moderated by the valence of subjects' chronic self-conceptions. Under self-focused attention conditions, positive self-conception subjects reported feeling happier than negative self-conception subjects. However, under other-focused attention conditions, positive and negative self-conception subjects did not differ in their reported mood. Supplementary analyses ruled out the possibility that the relation obtained between self-conception valence and mood was mediated by the valence of the stories that subjects wrote.

Trait self-focused attention increases sensitivity to nonconscious primes: evidence from effort-related cardiovascular reactivity

A broad range of primes presented outside of awareness - ranging from emotional faces to people's first names - can influence the physiological mobilization of effort during active coping tasks. Who responds more strongly to implicit cues? Based on models of self-awareness, the present research examined how individual differences in self-focused attention influence sensitivity to nonconscious primes. Adults completed a challenging cognitive task in which two kinds of primes were presented (people's first names and words related to the task's difficulty). Trait self-focus significantly interacted with both primes to predict effort, measured as systolic blood pressure (SBP) reactivity. People high in trait self-focus had significantly higher SBP reactivity when primed with words that made the task seem more important (their first names) and harder (high difficulty words). These findings thus expand the evidence for motivational intensity theory's analysis of implicit processes.

Lashing out after stewing over public insults: the effects of public provocation, provocation intensity, and rumination on triggered displaced aggression

Four studies present the first evidence showing that public (vs. private) provocation augments triggered displaced aggression by increasing the perceived intensity of the provocation. This effect is shown to be independent of face-saving motivation. Following a public or private provocation, Study 1 participants were induced to ruminate or were distracted for 20 min. They then had an opportunity to aggress against another person who either acted in a neutral or mildly annoying fashion (viz. triggering event). As expected, the magnitude of the greater displaced aggression of those who ruminated before the triggering event compared with those distracted was greater under public than private provocation. Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1 and confirmed that public provocations are experienced as more intense. Studies 3 and 4 both manipulated provocation intensity directly to show that it mediated the moderating effect of public/private provocation found in Study 1. The greater intensity of a public provocation increases reactivity to a subsequent trigger, which in turn, augments triggered displaced aggression.

Self-Awareness Without Awareness? Implicit Self-Focused Attention and Behavioral Self-Regulation

Objective self-awareness theory contends that focusing attention on the self initiates an automatic comparison of self to standards. To gain evidence for automatic self-standard comparison processes, two experiments manipulated attention to self with subliminal first-name priming. People completed a computer-based parity task after being instructed that the standard was to be fast or to be accurate. Subliminal first name priming increased behavioral adherence to the explicit standard. When told to be fast, self-focused people made more mistakes and had faster response times; when told to be accurate, self-focused people made fewer mistakes. A manipulation of conscious self-awareness (via a mirror) had the same self-regulatory effects. The findings suggest that comparing self to standards can occur automatically and that it is attention to self, not awareness of the self per se, that evokes self-evaluation.

Promoting exercise self-efficacy with an exergame

A new generation of exercise video games (exergames) shows promise as a tool to motivate and engage users in physical activity. However, little research has been conducted to examine whether exergames work equally well across diverse populations and contexts. Therefore, in the present study, the authors investigated the effects of an individual psychological difference factor and a specific contextual factor on the exercise experience using an exergame. They used the objective self-awareness theory as the theoretical underpinning. In a 2 (seeing the image of self on screen: seeing oneself vs. not seeing oneself) × 2 (body image dissatisfaction: low vs. high) between-subjects design experiment, the authors found significant interaction effects showing that the feature of seeing the image of self on screen provided by the exergame works positively for individuals with low body image dissatisfaction, yet works negatively for individuals with high body image dissatisfaction. The finding of the present study has significant implications for health professionals and individuals who use the new generation of exergames for physical activities.

Mortality salience of birthdays on day of death in the Major Leagues

The authors assessed the relationship of mortality salience, as represented by birthdays, on the day of death. Preliminary studies considered the role of possible artifacts such as seasonality of birth and death, and time units for evaluation. On the basis of terror management theory's concept of "mortality salience," the authors hypothesized that famous people, in this case Major League Baseball (MLB) players, would be more likely to die on or after their birthdays than would be expected by chance (the "birthday blues"), and that the greater their fame, as represented by induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame, the greater the concentration of deaths shortly after birthdays. The results supported the hypothesis. Theoretical underpinnings of these results and practical implications were discussed.

Effects of past Transgressions in an Induced Hypocrisy Paradigm

Hypocrisy can be considered as a dissonance state expressed as a combination of two factors: commitment (advocating a pronormative position) and mindfulness (being aware of past transgressions). Such inconsistency between what people advocate and their past behaviors is usually reduced by modifying behaviors or behavioral intentions in line with normative advocacy. The aim of this study is to examine the conditions under which this set of behaviors (apparent hypocrisy) can occur. Specifically, the salience of the transgressions was manipulated: participants were led to recall 1 or 4 transgressions varying in severity (serious vs harmless). As expected, recalling 4 transgressions led to greater behavioral change than recalling only 1 transgression. Surprisingly, recalling 4 harmless transgressions induced greater behavioral change than recalling 4 serious transgressions.

Levels of consciousness and self-awareness: A comparison and integration of various neurocognitive views

Quite a few recent models are rapidly introducing new concepts describing different levels of consciousness. This situation is getting confusing because some theorists formulate their models without making reference to existing views, redundantly adding complexity to an already difficult problem. In this paper, I present and compare nine neurocognitive models to highlight points of convergence and divergence. Two aspects of consciousness seem especially important: perception of self in time and complexity of self-representations. To this I add frequency of self-focus, amount of self-related information, and accuracy of self-knowledge. Overall, I conclude that many novel concepts (e.g., reflective, primary, core, extended, recursive, and minimal consciousness) are useful in helping us distinguish between delicate variations in consciousness and in clarifying theoretical issues that have been intensely debated in the scientific literature--e.g., consciousness in relation to mirror self-recognition and language.

TESTING COMPETING FACTOR MODELS UNDERLYING THE PRIVATE SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS SCALE WITH HONG KONG CHINESE ADOLESCENTS

This study evaluated competing factor models underlying the Private Self-Consciousness scale (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) with a large sample of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents. Reliability analysis and exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis did not lend empirical support to the three split-factor models proposed in previous research (Anderson, Bohon, & Berrigan, 1996; Burnkrant & Page, 1984; Martin & Debus, 1999). It was recommended that the original unitary model proposed by Fenigstein et al. should be retained in interpreting scores made on this scale, at least for Hong Kong Chinese adolescents. Possible influences of age and culture on the factor structure of the scale were also discussed.

SELF-FOCUS, GENDER, AND HABITUAL SELF-HANDICAPPING: DO THEY MAKE A DIFFERENCE IN BEHAVIORAL SELF-HANDICAPPING?

This experiment examined the effects of public self-focus on individuals' behavioral self-handicapping tendencies. When faced with a threatening evaluation, a person may choose to self-handicap behaviorally. Men, more than women, and trait self-handicappers have been shown to self-handicap behaviorally. How do situational factors such as self-focus interface with these personal characteristics to affect such actions? Self-focus of attention was expected to make the self-evaluation implications of an upcoming performance more salient and to cause the self-focused performer to self-handicap behaviorally. Persons who were low or high in habitual self-handicapping were presented with an important intellectual evaluation and were allowed to practice for the upcoming test. Results showed that men self-handicap more by practicing less when they are self-focused, but women do not self-handicap under selffocus and self-handicapping instruction conditions. The implications of these findings for understanding the antecedent conditions of self-handicapping are discussed in the context of other recent work.

“I KNOW WHAT I HAVE TO DO, BUT…” WHEN HYPOCRISY LEADS TO BEHAVIORAL CHANGE

Hypocrisy procedure has been used to induce behavioral change in a wide variety of areas including water conservation, condom use, and donations for homeless people. Hypocrisy implies the articulation of two factors: advocating a prosocial position and being made mindful of failures to behave according to that advocacy. This dissonance leads to a behavioral change which is the most efficient way to restore the self, in line with the self-consistency conception of dissonance. The aim of this study was to refine this procedure in a new setting: road safety area and specifically respect for speed limits. Moreover, we used a feedback threatening versus strengthening people's self-concept. The results suggest that threatening the self-concept enhances the hypocritical effect.

Looking inward: introspectiveness, physical disability, and depression across the life course

This study investigates the interrelationships among age, physical disability, introspectiveness, and depression. Using data from a community sample of disabled and non-disabled adults (N = 1,567), this study tests: 1) if there are age variations in introspectiveness; 2) if age variations in introspectiveness differ by physical disability status; 3) if introspectiveness mediates the association between age and depression; 4) if introspectiveness and disability status have synergistic effects on depression; and if so, 5) if subjective health differences between disabled and nondisabled account for the joint impact of introspectiveness and disability status on depression. Results show that older people report less introspectiveness than younger people do--which explains part of the negative association between age and depression. Additionally, the negative association between age and introspectiveness is significantly stronger among nondisabled respondents. Adjustment for less introspectiveness among older adults accounts for about 24 percent of the negative association between age and depression. Disabled respondents experience a more positive relationship between introspectiveness and depression; however, disabled respondents' poorer global health explains most of that pattern.

POSTTRAUMATIC DISSOCIATION AS A MEDIATOR OF THE EFFECTS OF TRAUMA ON DISTRESSFUL INTROSPECTIVENESS

This paper focuses on the stable personality trait of introspectiveness, exploring the relationship between introspectiveness and childhood trauma, dissociation and emotional distress. Ninety Israeli women were recruited from emergency counseling services and from academic and office employment settings. Pearson correlations between traumatic experiences and various dimensions of introspectiveness revealed significant links. Negative emotional and sexual experiences were the trauma variables that contributed most to this relationship, whereas a tendency to be aware of feelings toward family and about mortality were the dimensions of introspection that added most to this association. Prior trauma history, dissociation, introspectiveness, and emotional distress were significantly interrelated. The data from a path analysis performed suggest that introspectiveness may be better explained by the independent effect of dissociation rather than directly by trauma or by emotional distress. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.

On Introspection and Self-Perception: Does Self-Focused Attention Enable Accurate Self-Knowledge?

How is introspection related to accurate self-perception? Self-focused attention is said to facilitate accurate judgments of cognitive aspects (attitudes, standards, and attributions) and somatic aspects (sensations, arousal, physical symptoms, emotions) of self. The present skeptical review concludes that the “perceptual accuracy hypothesis” is unsupported. There is simply little direct evidence, and the indirect evidence is better explained by objective self-awareness theory's core tenet: Self-focus increases consistency motivation. Most studies have also failed to appreciate the complexity of establishing the accuracy of self-judgment. The authors discuss some conceptual issues that future work should recognize, such as the logics of accuracy research, the role of honesty standards in accurate self-reports, differences in self-perception and object perception, and the implications of different self-theories for accuracy.

THE REVISED SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS SCALE: AN ASSESSMENT OF FACTOR STRUCTURE, RELIABILITY, AND GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SAUDI ARABIA

The study investigated psychometric properties and gender differences in the responses of 1185 Saudi high school and university students to an Arabic version of the Revised Self-Consciousness Scale (Scheier & Carver, 1985). Findings replicated the three-factor structure. The original three subscales (private, public, and social anxiety) were factorially reproduced, and were found to have acceptable levels of reliability. Strong gender differences were found. High school females scored significantly and consistently higher than males on all three subscales. University female students scored significantly and consistently higher than males on private self-consciousness only. Results are discussed in relation to previous studies and in relation to the Saudi Arabian culture.