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Abstract
Laboratory studies have revealed that social factors are key in bird-song learning. Nevertheless, little is known about how or why birds choose the songs they do learn from the many they will hear under natural conditions. We focus on various theories concerning social song learning that have been offered to date, with special attention paid to two axes of social factors. First, does song learning occur via direct interaction of the young bird with song tutors, or via social eavesdropping by the young bird on interacting singers (social modeling of song)? Social modeling, a hypothesis first proposed by Pepperberg (Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 55(2), 139-160, 1981), and direct interaction are not mutually exclusive hypotheses, and the evidence we review suggests both play a role in song learning. Second, does song learning occur via interactions with rivals (territorial competitors) or with friends (mutually tolerant or even cooperative territorial neighbors). These are largely mutually exclusive hypotheses, and can really only be tested in the field. There is little evidence on this contrast to date. We review our recent study on song sparrows, which indicates that both the young bird and his primary tutor may benefit from song learning/tutoring. If this mutual benefit result is confirmed by further studies, we believe that song "tutoring" in these cases may be more than a term of convenience: that it may qualify as true teaching.
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Akçay Ç, Campbell SE, Darling S, Beecher MD. Territory establishment, song learning strategies and survival in song sparrows. Ethology 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Çağlar Akçay
- Department of Psychology Koç University Istanbul Turkey
- Department of Biological Sciences Virginia Tech Blacksburg VA USA
| | | | - Saethra Darling
- Department of Psychology University of Washington Seattle WA USA
| | - Michael D. Beecher
- Department of Psychology University of Washington Seattle WA USA
- Department of Biology University of Washington Seattle WA USA
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Akçay Ç, Beecher MD. Song sparrows do not discriminate between their own song and stranger song. Behav Processes 2020; 178:104184. [PMID: 32561233 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Bird song is socially learned. During song learning, the bird's hearing its own vocalization is important for normal development of song. Whether bird's own song is represented and recognized as a special category in adult birds, however, is unclear. If birds respond differently to their own songs when these are played back to them, this would be evidence for auditory self-recognition. To test this possibility, we presented song sparrow males (Melospiza melodia) playbacks of their own songs or stranger songs and measured aggressive responses as well as type matching. We found no evidence of behavioral discrimination of bird's own song relative to the (non-matching) stranger song. These findings cast doubt on an earlier proposal that song sparrows display auditory self-recognition and support the common assumption in playback experiments that bird's own song is perceived as stranger song.
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Affiliation(s)
- Çağlar Akçay
- Department of Psychology, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey; Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Michael D Beecher
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Singing behind the stage: thrush nightingales produce more variable songs on their wintering grounds. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-019-2765-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Herman LM. The multiple functions of male song within the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) mating system: review, evaluation, and synthesis. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2016; 92:1795-1818. [PMID: 28677337 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Revised: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) are seasonal breeders, annually migrating from high-latitude summer feeding grounds to low-latitude winter breeding grounds. The social matrix on the winter grounds is a loose network of interacting individuals and groups and notably includes lone males that produce long bouts of complex song that collectively yield an asynchronous chorus. Occasionally, a male will sing while accompanying other whales. Despite a wealth of knowledge about the social matrix, the full characterization of the mating system remains unresolved, without any firm consensus, as does the function of song within that system. Here, I consider and critically analyse three proposed functions of song that have received the most attention in the literature: female attraction to individual singers, determining or facilitating male-male interactions, and attracting females to a male aggregation within the context of a lekking system. Female attraction suggests that humpback song is an advertisement and invitation to females, but field observations and song playback studies reveal that female visits to individual singers are virtually absent. Other observations suggest instead that females might convey their presence to singers (or to other males) through the percussive sounds of flipper or tail slapping or possibly through vocalizations. There is some evidence for male-male interactions, both dominance and affiliative: visits to singers are almost always other lone males not singing at that time. The joiner may be seeking a coalition with the singer to engage cooperatively in attempts to obtain females, or may be seeking to disrupt the song or to affirm his dominance. Some observations support one or the other intent. However, other observations, in part based on the brevity of most pairings, suggest that the joiner is prospecting, seeking to determine whether the singer is accompanying a female, and if not soon departs. In the lekking hypothesis, the aggregation of vocalizing males on a winter ground and the visits there by non-maternal females apparently for mating meet the fundamental definition of a lekking system and its role though communal display in attracting females to the aggregation, although not to an individual singer. Communal singing is viewed as a form of by-product mutualism in which individuals benefit one another as incidental consequences of their own selfish actions. Possibly, communal singing may also act to stimulate female receptivity. Thus, there are both limitations and merit in all three proposals. Full consideration of song as serving multiple functions is therefore necessary to understand its role in the mating system and the forces acting on the evolution of song. I suggest that song may be the prime vector recruiting colonists to new winter grounds pioneered by vagrant males as population pressures increase or as former winter grounds become unavailable or undesirable, with such instances documented relatively recently. Speculatively, song may have evolved historically as an aggregating call during the dynamic ocean conditions and resulting habitat uncertainties in the late Miocene-early Pliocene epochs when Megaptera began to proliferate. Early song may have been comprised of simpler precursor sounds that through natural selection and ritualization evolved into complex song.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis M Herman
- Department of Psychology, University of Hawaii at Manoa and The Dolphin Institute
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Akçay Ç, Clay A, Campbell SE, Beecher MD. The sparrow and the hawk: aggressive signaling under risk of predation. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Riebel K, Lachlan RF, Slater PJ. Learning and Cultural Transmission in Chaffinch Song. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.asb.2015.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Nelson DA, Poesel A. Tutor choice and imitation accuracy during song learning in a wild population of the Puget Sound white-crowned sparrow. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-014-1782-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Akçay Ç, Campbell SE, Reed VA, Beecher MD. Song sparrows do not learn more songs from aggressive tutors. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Ballen C, Shine R, Olsson M. Effects of early social isolation on the behaviour and performance of juvenile lizards, Chamaeleo calyptratus. Anim Behav 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Searcy WA, Akçay C, Nowicki S, Beecher MD. Aggressive Signaling in Song Sparrows and Other Songbirds. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800286-5.00003-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Nelson DA, Poesel A. Song sharing correlates with lifetime social pairing success but not territory tenure in the Puget Sound white-crowned sparrow. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-013-1525-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Templeton CN, Akçay Ç, Campbell SE, Beecher MD. Soft song is a reliable signal of aggressive intent in song sparrows. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-012-1405-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Templeton CN, Burt JM, Campbell SE, Lent K, Brenowitz EA, Beecher MD. Immediate and long-term effects of testosterone on song plasticity and learning in juvenile song sparrows. Behav Processes 2012; 90:254-60. [PMID: 22387677 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2012.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2011] [Revised: 02/11/2012] [Accepted: 02/16/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Steroid sex hormones play critical roles in the development of brain regions used for vocal learning. It has been suggested that puberty-induced increases in circulating testosterone (T) levels crystallize a bird's repertoire and inhibit future song learning. Previous studies show that early administration of T crystallizes song repertoires but have not addressed whether new songs can be learned after this premature crystallization. We brought 8 juvenile song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) into the laboratory in the late summer and implanted half of them with subcutaneous T pellets for a two week period in October. Birds treated with T tripled their singing rates and crystallized normal songs in 2 weeks. After T removal, subjects were tutored by 4 new adults. Birds previously treated with T tended toward learning fewer new songs post T, consistent with the hypothesis that T helps to close the song learning phase. However, one T-treated bird proceeded to learn several new songs in the spring, despite singing perfectly crystallized songs in the fall. His small crystallized fall repertoire and initial lag behind other subjects in song development suggest that this individual may have had limited early song learning experience. We conclude that an exposure to testosterone sufficient for crystallization of a normal song repertoire does not necessarily prevent future song learning and suggest that early social experiences might override the effects of hormones in closing song learning.
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Templeton CN, Campbell SE, Beecher MD. Territorial song sparrows tolerate juveniles during the early song-learning phase. Behav Ecol 2012. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/ars056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Leboucher G, Vallet E, Nagle L, Béguin N, Bovet D, Hallé F, Draganoiu TI, Amy M, Kreutzer M. Studying Female Reproductive Activities in Relation to Male Song. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394288-3.00005-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Templeton CN, Reed VA, Campbell SE, Beecher MD. Spatial movements and social networks in juvenile male song sparrows. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 23:141-152. [PMID: 22479140 DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arr167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2011] [Revised: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 07/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The time between fledging and breeding is a critical period in songbird ontogeny, but the behavior of young songbirds in the wild is relatively unstudied. The types of social relationships juveniles form with other individuals can provide insight into the process through which they learn complex behaviors crucial for survival, territory establishment, and mate attraction. We used radio telemetry to observe social associations of young male song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) from May to November. Juvenile song sparrows were frequently observed in social flocks and generally associated with more birds in the summer than in the autumn months. Most juvenile subjects formed stable social relationships with other birds and were seen with the same individual on up to 60% of the days observed. The strongest associations occurred with other juvenile males, and these individuals were often seen <1 m from the subject, even when the subject moved large distances between tracking observations. Associations also had long-term behavioral consequences as subjects were more likely to establish territories near their associates and learn shared song types. Our results indicate that male song sparrows spend a large percentage of the juvenile life stage forming social relationships and suggest that these associations may be important for the ecology of young birds and the ontogeny of their behaviors.
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Spatial and age-related variation in use of locally common song elements in dawn singing of song sparrows Melospiza melodia: old males sing the hits. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-011-1223-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Goodale E, Podos J. Persistence of song types in Darwin's finches, Geospiza fortis, over four decades. Biol Lett 2010; 6:589-92. [PMID: 20392717 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2010.0165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Learned bird songs evolve via cultural evolution, with song patterns transmitted across generations by imitative learning. In Darwin's finches of the Galápagos Islands, males learn songs from their fathers, and song types can be maintained across multiple generations. However, little is known about the time frame over which specific song types are preserved, in the face of copy errors and corresponding modifications to song structure. Here we investigate cultural evolution in songs of male Geospiza fortis, at Academy Bay, Santa Cruz Island, comparing songs recorded in 1961 by R. Bowman (20 individuals) to those recorded in 1999 by J. Podos (16 individuals). For each individual, we characterized four timing and six frequency parameters, and assessed inter-individual variation in song structure using multivariate analysis. Several 1961 song types persisted into 1999, some with remarkable fidelity. Variation among song types was extensive during both years, and we detected no changes in 10 vocal parameters across the sampling period. These results illustrate temporal continuity in a culturally acquired trait, and raise questions about mechanisms that promote stability in song structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eben Goodale
- Department of Biology, Graduate Program in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.
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Templeton CN, Akçay C, Campbell SE, Beecher MD. Juvenile sparrows preferentially eavesdrop on adult song interactions. Proc Biol Sci 2010; 277:447-53. [PMID: 19846461 PMCID: PMC2842648 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2009.1491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2009] [Accepted: 09/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent research has demonstrated that bird song learning is influenced by social factors, but so far has been unable to isolate the particular social variables central to the learning process. Here we test the hypothesis that eavesdropping on singing interactions of adults is a key social event in song learning by birds. In a field experiment, we compared the response of juvenile male song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) to simulated adult counter-singing versus simulated solo singing. We used radio telemetry to follow the movements of each focal bird and assess his response to each playback trial. Juveniles approached the playback speakers when exposed to simulated interactive singing of two song sparrows, but not when exposed to simulated solo singing of a single song sparrow, which in fact they treated similar to heterospecific singing. Although the young birds approached simulated counter-singing, neither did they approach closely, nor did they vocalize themselves, suggesting that the primary function of approach was to permit eavesdropping on these singing interactions. These results indicate that during the prime song-learning phase, juvenile song sparrows are attracted to singing interactions between adults but not to singing by a single bird and suggest that singing interactions may be particularly powerful song-tutoring events.
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