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Smutná M, Javůrek J, Sehnal L, Toušová Z, Javůrková B, Sychrová E, Lepšová-Skácelová O, Hilscherová K. Potential risk of estrogenic compounds produced by water blooms to aquatic environment. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 341:140015. [PMID: 37657694 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
Some freshwater phytoplankton species have been suggested to produce estrogenic compounds in concentrations which could cause adverse effects to aquatic biota, while other studies showed no estrogenic effects after exposure to phytoplankton extracts or pointed out possible sources of the overestimation of the estrogenic activity. This study aimed to clarify these research inconsistencies by investigating estrogenicity of biomass extracts from both environmental freshwater blooms and laboratory cyanobacterial and algae cultures by in vitro reporter bioassay. Biomasses of 8 cyanobacterial and 3 algal species from 7 taxonomic orders were extracted and tested. Next to this, samples of environmental water blooms collected from 8 independent water bodies dominated by phytoplankton species previously assessed as laboratory cultures were tested. The results showed undetectable or low estrogenicity of both freshwater blooms and laboratory cultures with E2 equivalent concentration (EEQ) in a range from LOQ up to 4.5 ng EEQ/g of dry mass. Moreover, the co-exposure of biomass extracts with environmentally relevant concentration of model estrogen (steroid hormone 17β-estradiol; E2), commonly occurring in surface waters, showed simple additive interaction. However, some of the biomass extracts elicited partially anti-estrogenic effects in co-exposure with higher E2 concentration. In conclusion, our study documents undetectable or relatively low estrogenic potential of biomass extracts from both environmental freshwater blooms and studied laboratory cultured cyanobacterial and algae species. Nevertheless, in case of very high-density water blooms, even this low estrogenicity (detected for two cyanobacterial species) could lead to EEQ content in biomass reaching effect-based trigger values indicating potential risk, if recalculated per water volume at field sites. However, these levels would not occur in water under realistic environmental scenarios and the potential estrogenic effects would be most probably minor compared to other toxic effects caused by massive freshwater blooms of such high densities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Smutná
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Javůrek
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Luděk Sehnal
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Toušová
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Javůrková
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Eliška Sychrová
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Olga Lepšová-Skácelová
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Na Zlaté stoce 1, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Klára Hilscherová
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlarska 2, Brno, Czech Republic.
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Xu R, Jiang Y, MacIsaac HJ, Chen L, Li J, Xu J, Wang T, Zi Y, Chang X. Blooming cyanobacteria alter water flea reproduction via exudates of estrogen analogues. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 696:133909. [PMID: 31454606 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 07/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria blooms are increasing globally, with further increases predicted in association with climate change. Recently, some cyanobacteria species have been identified as a source of estrogenic effects in aquatic animals. To explore possible estrogenic effects of Microcystis aeruginosa (an often-dominant cyanobacteria species) on zooplankton, we examined effects of cyanobacteria exudates (MaE, 2 × 104 and 4 × 105 cells/ml) on reproduction in Daphnia magna. We analyzed physiological, biochemical and molecular characteristics of exposed Daphnia via both chronic and acute exposures. MaE at both low and high cell density enhanced egg number (15.4% and 23.3%, respectively) and reproduction (37.7% and 52.4%, respectively) in D. magna similar to 10 μg/L estradiol exposure. In addition, both MaE of low and high cell densities increased population growth rate (15.8% and 19.6%, respectively) and reproductive potential (60% and 83%, respectively) of D. magna. These exudates promoted D. magna reproduction by stimulating 17β-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase (17β-HSD) activity and production of ecdysone and juvenile hormone, and by enhancing vitellogenin biosynthesis via up-regulating expression of Vtg1 and Vtg2. However, increased expression (6.6 times higher than controls) of a detoxification gene (CYP360A8) indicated that MaE might also induce toxicity in D. magna. Reproductive interference of zooplankton by blooming cyanobacteria might negatively affect foodwebs because MaE-induced zooplankton population increase would enhance grazing and reduce abundance of edible algae, thereby adding to the list of known disruptive properties of cyanobacterial blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runbing Xu
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China
| | - Yao Jiang
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China; Xi'an Institute for Innovative Earth Environment Research, Xi'an 710061, PR China
| | - Hugh J MacIsaac
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China; Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada.
| | - Liqiang Chen
- Institute of International Rivers and Eco-security, Yunnan Key Laboratory of International Rivers and Trans-boundary Eco-security, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China.
| | - Jingjing Li
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China
| | - Jun Xu
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China
| | - Tao Wang
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China
| | - Yuanyan Zi
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China
| | - Xuexiu Chang
- School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, PR China; Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada.
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Viggiani MT, Polimeno L, Di Leo A, Barone M. Phytoestrogens: Dietary Intake, Bioavailability, and Protective Mechanisms against Colorectal Neoproliferative Lesions. Nutrients 2019; 11:nu11081709. [PMID: 31344966 PMCID: PMC6722977 DOI: 10.3390/nu11081709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 07/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytoestrogens are natural substances that have been extensively studied for their beneficial effect on human health. Herein, we analyzed the data of the literature on the role of phytoestrogens in the prevention of colorectal neoproliferative lesions (CNL). Both in vitro and in vivo studies suggest that the beneficial effects of phytoestrogens on CNL mainly depend on their ability to bind estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) in the intestinal mucosa and counter ER-alpha (ERα) activity. Epidemiological data demonstrate a correlation between the low prevalence of CNL in Eastern populations and the consumption of soy products (phytoestrogen-enriched diet). However, both observational and interventional studies have produced inconclusive results. In our opinion, these discrepancies depend on an inadequate evaluation of phytoestrogen intake (dietary questionnaires were not aimed at establishing phytoestrogen intake) and absorption (depending mainly on the intestinal microbiota of the analyzed subjects). For this reason, in the present review, we performed an overview of phytoestrogen dietary intake and metabolism to offer the reader the opportunity for a better interpretation of the literature. Future prospective trials focusing on the protective effect of phytoestrogens against CNL should take into account both their dietary intake and absorption, considering the effective role of the intestinal microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Teresa Viggiani
- Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (D.E.T.O.), University of Bari, Policlinic University Hospital, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Polimeno
- Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (D.E.T.O.), University of Bari, Policlinic University Hospital, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Alfredo Di Leo
- Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (D.E.T.O.), University of Bari, Policlinic University Hospital, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Michele Barone
- Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (D.E.T.O.), University of Bari, Policlinic University Hospital, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy.
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Jarošová B, Javůrek J, Adamovský O, Hilscherová K. Phytoestrogens and mycoestrogens in surface waters--Their sources, occurrence, and potential contribution to estrogenic activity. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2015; 81:26-44. [PMID: 25916939 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2015.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2014] [Revised: 03/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This review discusses the potential contribution of phytoestrogens and mycoestrogens to in vitro estrogenic activities occurring in surface waters and in vivo estrogenic effects in fish. Main types, sources, and pathways of entry into aquatic environment of these detected compounds were summarized. Reviewed concentrations of phyto/mycoestrogens in surface waters were mostly undetectable or in low ng/L ranges, but exceeded tens of μg/L for the flavonoids biochanin A, daidzein and genistein at some sites. While a few phytosterols were reported to occur at relatively high concentrations in surface waters, information about their potencies in in vitro systems is very limited, and contradictory in some cases. The relative estrogenic activities of compounds (compared to standard estrogen 17β-estradiol) by various in vitro assays were included, and found to differ by orders of magnitude. These potencies were used to estimate total potential estrogenic activities based on chemical analyses of phyto/mycoestrogens. In vivo effective concentrations of waterborne phyto/mycoestrogens were available only for biochanin A, daidzein, formononetin, genistein, equol, sitosterol, and zearalenone. The lowest observable effect concentrations in vivo were reported for the mycoestrogen zearalenone. This compound and especially its metabolites also elicited the highest in vitro estrogenic potencies. Despite the limited information available, the review documents low contribution of phyto/mycoestrogens to estrogenic activity in vast majority of surface waters, but significant contribution to in vitro responses and potentially also to in vivo effects in areas with high concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbora Jarošová
- Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Masaryk University, Kamenice 3, CZ-62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Javůrek
- Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Masaryk University, Kamenice 3, CZ-62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Adamovský
- Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Masaryk University, Kamenice 3, CZ-62500 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Klára Hilscherová
- Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment (RECETOX), Masaryk University, Kamenice 3, CZ-62500 Brno, Czech Republic.
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Gencel VB, Benjamin MM, Bahou SN, Khalil RA. Vascular effects of phytoestrogens and alternative menopausal hormone therapy in cardiovascular disease. Mini Rev Med Chem 2012; 12:149-74. [PMID: 22070687 DOI: 10.2174/138955712798995020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2011] [Revised: 07/27/2011] [Accepted: 08/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Phytoestrogens are estrogenic compounds of plant origin classified into different groups including isoflavones, lignans, coumestans and stilbenes. Isoflavones such as genistein and daidzein are the most studied and most potent phytoestrogens, and are found mainly in soy based foods. The effects of phytoestrogens are partly mediated via estrogen receptors (ERs): ERα, ERβ and possibly GPER. The interaction of phytoestrogens with ERs is thought to induce both genomic and non-genomic effects in many tissues including the vasculature. Some phytoestrogens such as genistein have additional non-ER-mediated effects involving signaling pathways such as tyrosine kinase. Experimental studies have shown beneficial effects of phytoestrogens on endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle, and extracellular matrix. Phytoestrogens may also affect other pathophysiologic vascular processes such as lipid profile, angiogenesis, inflammation, tissue damage by reactive oxygen species, and these effects could delay the progression of atherosclerosis. As recent clinical trials showed no vascular benefits or even increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and CV events with conventional menopausal hormone therapy (MHT), phytoestrogens are being considered as alternatives to pharmacologic MHT. Epidemiological studies in the Far East population suggest that dietary intake of phytoestrogens may contribute to the decreased incidence of postmenopausal CVD and thromboembolic events. Also, the WHO-CARDIAC study supported that consumption of high soybean diet is associated with lower mortalities from coronary artery disease. However, as with estrogen, there has been some discrepancy between the experimental studies demonstrating the vascular benefits of phytoestrogens and the data from clinical trials. This is likely because the phytoestrogens clinical trials have been limited in many aspects including the number of participants enrolled, the clinical end points investigated, and the lack of long-term follow-up. Further investigation of the cellular mechanisms underlying the vascular effects of phytoestrogens and careful evaluation of the epidemiological evidence and clinical trials of their potential vascular benefits would put forward the use of phytoestrogens as an alternative MHT for the relief of menopausal symptoms and amelioration of postmenopausal CVD.
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Affiliation(s)
- V B Gencel
- Vascular Surgery Research Laboratory, Division of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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van de Wetering K, Sapthu S. ABCG2 functions as a general phytoestrogen sulfate transporter in vivo. FASEB J 2012; 26:4014-24. [PMID: 22707564 DOI: 10.1096/fj.12-210039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
ABCG2 is an ATP-dependent efflux transporter that limits the systemic exposure of its substrates. The preferred substrates of ABCG2 in vivo are largely unknown. We aimed to identify the compounds transported by ABCG2 under physiological conditions. In vitro, ABCG2 transports several sulfate conjugates at high rates. We therefore used targeted metabolomics, specifically detecting compounds conjugated to sulfate, to search in plasma, urine, and bile samples of wild-type and Abcg2-/- mice for differentially present compounds, which are likely to represent in vivo ABCG2 substrates. Levels of many sulfate conjugates were up to 15-fold higher in plasma and urine of Abcg2-/- than of wild-type mice, with the opposite effect seen in bile. These differentially present compounds were identified as the sulfate conjugates of phytoestrogens, compounds with weak pro- or antiestrogenic properties. We confirmed that these sulfate conjugates were ABCG2 substrates using transportomics, a method that uses vesicular transport assays to screen for substrates of ABC transporters in body fluids. In conclusion, our results show that ABCG2 limits the systemic exposure to many different phytoestrogens, a class of compounds to which mammals are exposed on a daily basis via food of plant origin, by directing their sulfate conjugates for excretion via the feces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koen van de Wetering
- Division of Molecular Oncology (H5), Plesmanlaan 121, 1066 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Simons R, Gruppen H, Bovee TFH, Verbruggen MA, Vincken JP. Prenylated isoflavonoids from plants as selective estrogen receptor modulators (phytoSERMs). Food Funct 2012; 3:810-27. [PMID: 22684228 DOI: 10.1039/c2fo10290k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Isoflavonoids are a class of secondary metabolites, which comprise amongst others the subclasses of isoflavones, isoflavans, pterocarpans and coumestans. Isoflavonoids are abundant in Leguminosae, and many of them can bind to the human estrogen receptor (hER) with affinities similar to or lower than that of estradiol. Dietary intake of these so-called phytoestrogens has been associated with positive effects on menopausal complaints, hormone-related cancers, and osteoporosis. Therefore, phytoestrogens are used as nutraceuticals in functional foods or food supplements. Most of the isoflavonoids show agonistic activity towards both hERα and hERβ, the extent of which is modulated by the substitution pattern of their skeleton (i.e.-OH, -OCH(3)). Interestingly, substitutions consisting of a five-carbon prenyl group often seem to result in an antiestrogenic activity. There is growing evidence that the action of some of these prenylated isoflavonoids is tissue-specific, suggesting that they act like selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs), such as the well-known chemically synthesized raloxifene and tamoxifen. These so-called phytoSERMS might have high potential for realizing new food and pharma applications. In this review, the structural features of isoflavonoids (i.e. the kind of skeleton and prenylation (e.g. chain or pyran), position of the prenyl group on the skeleton, and the extent of prenylation (single, double)) are discussed in relation to their estrogenic activity. Anti-estrogenic and SERM activity of isoflavonoids was always associated with prenylation, but these activities did not seem to be confined to one particular kind/position of prenylation or isoflavonoid subclass. Few estrogens with agonistic activity were prenylated, but these were not tested for antagonistic activity; possibly, these molecules will turn out to be phytoSERMs as well. Furthermore, the data on the dietary occurrence, bioavailability and metabolism of prenylated isoflavonoids are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudy Simons
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8129, 6700 EV Wageningen, the Netherlands
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Barnes S. The biochemistry, chemistry and physiology of the isoflavones in soybeans and their food products. Lymphat Res Biol 2010; 8:89-98. [PMID: 20235891 PMCID: PMC2883528 DOI: 10.1089/lrb.2009.0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review of the chemistry, absorption, metabolism, and mechanisms of action of plant isoflavones, emphasis is placed on the isoflavones in soy and the food products derived from them. Soybeans have been part of food history in Asia for several millennia but did not reach the Americas and Europe until the eighteenth century. In the twentieth century, there was a tremendous increase in the cultivation of soybeans in the United States and more recently in South America. Soy foods have entered the U.S. food supply in ever-increasing amounts both in the form of traditional products (soy milk, tofu) and in more subtle ways in dairy and bread/cake products. The isoflavones in non-fermented foods are for the most part in the form of glycoside conjugates. These undergo changes due to different processing procedures. Isoflavones and their metabolites are well absorbed and undergo an enterohepatic circulation. They are often termed phytoestrogens because they bind to the estrogen receptors although weakly compared to physiologic estrogens. This estrogenicity is not the only mechanism by which isoflavones may have bioactivity-they inhibit tyrosine kinases, have antioxidant activity, bind to and activate peroxisome proliferator regulators alpha and gamma, inhibit enzymes in steroid biosynthesis, strongly influence natural killer cell function and the activation of specific T-cell subsets, and inhibit metastasis. These various properties may explain the much lower incidence of hormonally-dependent breast cancer in Asian populations compared to Americans and Europeans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Barnes
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Alabama at Birmingham and Purdue University - University of Alabama at Birmingham Botanicals Center for Age-Related Disease, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA.
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van de Wetering K, Feddema W, Helms JB, Brouwers JF, Borst P. Targeted metabolomics identifies glucuronides of dietary phytoestrogens as a major class of MRP3 substrates in vivo. Gastroenterology 2009; 137:1725-35. [PMID: 19577570 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2009.06.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2009] [Revised: 06/09/2009] [Accepted: 06/25/2009] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The physiologic function of the efflux transporter Multidrug Resistance Protein 3 (MRP3) remains poorly defined. In vitro, MRP3 transports several glucuronidated compounds, but the compounds transported under physiologic conditions are unknown. Knowledge of the compounds transported by MRP3 in vivo would greatly contribute to the elucidation of the physiologic function of this transport protein. METHODS We used targeted metabolomics to identify substrates of MRP3 in vivo. Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry was used to specifically screen in plasma and urine of mice for compounds containing a glucuronic acid moiety. RESULTS We found that several highly abundant compounds containing a glucuronic acid moiety have a much lower abundance in plasma and urine of Mrp3((-/-)) than of wild-type mice. We identified these as phytoestrogen-glucuronides, and we show that MRP3 transports these compounds at high rates and with high affinity in vitro. CONCLUSIONS We have identified the efflux transporter MRP3 as a major factor in the disposition of phytoestrogens, a class of compounds to which mammals are exposed via food of plant origin. Our targeted metabolomics approach is not restricted to MRP3 but applicable to many other transport proteins for which knockout mouse models are available. Similar screens could be developed for sulpho- and glutathione-conjugates, further increasing the potential of identifying new physiologic transporter substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koen van de Wetering
- Division of Molecular Biology, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Vacek J, Klejdus B, Lojková L, Kubán V. Current trends in isolation, separation, determination and identification of isoflavones: A review. J Sep Sci 2008; 31:2054-67. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200700569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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