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Tayama Y, Sugihara K, Sanoh S, Miyake K, Kitamura S, Ohta S. Xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase contribute to allopurinol metabolism in rats. J Pharm Health Care Sci 2022; 8:31. [PMID: 36476607 PMCID: PMC9730672 DOI: 10.1186/s40780-022-00262-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Allopurinol is used to treat hyperuricemia and gout. It is metabolized to oxypurinol by xanthine oxidase (XO), and aldehyde oxidase (AO). Allopurinol and oxypurinol are potent XO inhibitors that reduce the plasma uric acid levels. Although oxypurinol levels show large inter-individual variations, high concentrations of oxypurinol can cause various adverse effects. Therefore, it is important to understand allopurinol metabolism by XO and AO. In this study we aimed to estimate the role of AO and XO in allopurinol metabolism by pre-administering Crl:CD and Jcl:SD rats, which have known strain differences in AO activity, with XO inhibitor febuxostat. METHODS Allopurinol (30 or 100 mg/kg) was administered to Crl:CD and Jcl:SD rats with low and high AO activity, respectively, after pretreatment with or without febuxostat. The serum concentrations of allopurinol and oxypurinol were measured, and the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) was calculated from the 48 h serum concentration-time profile. In vivo metabolic activity was measured as the ratio AUCoxypurinol /AUCallopurinol. RESULTS Although no strain-specific differences were observed in the AUCoxypurinol/AUCallopurinol ratio in the allopurinol (30 mg/kg)-treated group, the ratio in Jcl:SD rats was higher than that in Crl:CD rats after febuxostat pretreatment. Contrastingly, the AUC ratio of allopurinol (100 mg/kg) was approximately 2-fold higher in Jcl:SD rats than that in Crl:CD rats. These findings showed that Jcl:SD rats had higher intrinsic AO activity than Crl:CD rats did. However, febuxostat pretreatment substantially decreased the activity, as measured by the AUC ratio using allopurinol (100 mg/kg), to 46 and 63% in Crl:CD rats and Jcl:SD rats, respectively, compared to the control group without febuxostat pretreatment. CONCLUSIONS We elucidated the role of XO and AO in allopurinol metabolism in Crl:CD and Jcl:SD rats. Notably, AO can exert a proportionately greater impact on allopurinol metabolism at high allopurinol concentrations. AO's impact on allopurinol metabolism is meaningful enough that individual differences in AO may explain allopurinol toxicity events. Considering the inter-individual differences in AO activity, these findings can aid to dose adjustment of allopurinol to avoid potential adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshitaka Tayama
- grid.412153.00000 0004 1762 0863Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Hiroshima International University, 5-1-1 Hirokoshingai, Kure-shi, Hiroshima, 737-0112 Japan
| | - Kazumi Sugihara
- grid.412153.00000 0004 1762 0863Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Hiroshima International University, 5-1-1 Hirokoshingai, Kure-shi, Hiroshima, 737-0112 Japan
| | - Seigo Sanoh
- grid.412857.d0000 0004 1763 1087School of Pharmaceutical Health Sciences, Wakayama Medical University, 25-1 Shichibancho, Wakayama, 640-8156 Japan
| | - Katsushi Miyake
- grid.412153.00000 0004 1762 0863Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, Hiroshima International University, 5-1-1 Hirokoshingai, Kure-shi, Hiroshima, 737-0112 Japan
| | - Shigeyuki Kitamura
- grid.444657.00000 0004 0606 9754Nihon Pharmaceutical University, Komuro 10281, Inamachi, Kitaadachi-gun, Saitama, 362-0806 Japan
| | - Shigeru Ohta
- grid.412857.d0000 0004 1763 1087School of Pharmaceutical Health Sciences, Wakayama Medical University, 25-1 Shichibancho, Wakayama, 640-8156 Japan
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Non-cytochrome P450 enzymes involved in the oxidative metabolism of xenobiotics: Focus on the regulation of gene expression and enzyme activity. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 233:108020. [PMID: 34637840 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.108020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative metabolism is one of the major biotransformation reactions that regulates the exposure of xenobiotics and their metabolites in the circulatory system and local tissues and organs, and influences their efficacy and toxicity. Although cytochrome (CY)P450s play critical roles in the oxidative reaction, extensive CYP450-independent oxidative metabolism also occurs in some xenobiotics, such as aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidoreductase, flavin-containing monooxygenase, monoamine oxidase, alcohol dehydrogenase, or aldehyde dehydrogenase-dependent oxidative metabolism. Drugs form a large portion of xenobiotics and are the primary target of this review. The common reaction mechanisms and roles of non-CYP450 enzymes in metabolism, factors affecting the expression and activity of non-CYP450 enzymes in terms of inhibition, induction, regulation, and species differences in pharmaceutical research and development have been summarized. These non-CYP450 enzymes are detoxifying enzymes, although sometimes they mediate severe toxicity. Synthetic or natural chemicals serve as inhibitors for these non-CYP450 enzymes. However, pharmacokinetic-based drug interactions through these inhibitors have rarely been reported in vivo. Although multiple mechanisms participate in the basal expression and regulation of non-CYP450 enzymes, only a limited number of inducers upregulate their expression. Therefore, these enzymes are considered non-inducible or less inducible. Overall, this review focuses on the potential xenobiotic factors that contribute to variations in gene expression levels and the activities of non-CYP450 enzymes.
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Manevski N, King L, Pitt WR, Lecomte F, Toselli F. Metabolism by Aldehyde Oxidase: Drug Design and Complementary Approaches to Challenges in Drug Discovery. J Med Chem 2019; 62:10955-10994. [PMID: 31385704 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) catalyzes oxidations of azaheterocycles and aldehydes, amide hydrolysis, and diverse reductions. AO substrates are rare among marketed drugs, and many candidates failed due to poor pharmacokinetics, interspecies differences, and adverse effects. As most issues arise from complex and poorly understood AO biology, an effective solution is to stop or decrease AO metabolism. This perspective focuses on rational drug design approaches to modulate AO-mediated metabolism in drug discovery. AO biological aspects are also covered, as they are complementary to chemical design and important when selecting the experimental system for risk assessment. The authors' recommendation is an early consideration of AO-mediated metabolism supported by computational and in vitro experimental methods but not an automatic avoidance of AO structural flags, many of which are versatile and valuable building blocks. Preferably, consideration of AO-mediated metabolism should be part of the multiparametric drug optimization process, with the goal to improve overall drug-like properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nenad Manevski
- UCB Celltech , 208 Bath Road , Slough SL13WE , United Kingdom
| | - Lloyd King
- UCB Celltech , 208 Bath Road , Slough SL13WE , United Kingdom
| | - William R Pitt
- UCB Celltech , 208 Bath Road , Slough SL13WE , United Kingdom
| | - Fabien Lecomte
- UCB Celltech , 208 Bath Road , Slough SL13WE , United Kingdom
| | - Francesca Toselli
- UCB BioPharma , Chemin du Foriest 1 , 1420 Braine-l'Alleud , Belgium
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4
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Adusumalli S, Jamwal R, Obach RS, Ryder TF, Leggio L, Akhlaghi F. Role of Molybdenum-Containing Enzymes in the Biotransformation of the Novel Ghrelin Receptor Inverse Agonist PF-5190457: A Reverse Translational Bed-to-Bench Approach. Drug Metab Dispos 2019; 47:874-882. [PMID: 31182423 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.119.087015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
(R)-2-(2-methylimidazo[2,1-b]thiazol-6-yl)-1-(2-(5-(6-methylpyrimidin-4-yl)-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-1-yl)-2,7-diazaspiro[3.5]nonan-7-yl)ethan-1-one (PF-5190457) was identified as a potent and selective inverse agonist of the ghrelin receptor [growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHS-R1a)]. The present translational bed-to-bench work characterizes the biotransformation of this compound in vivo and then further explores in vitro metabolism in fractions of human liver and primary hepatocytes. Following oral administration of PF-5190457 in a phase 1b clinical study, hydroxyl metabolites of the compound were observed, including one that had not been observed in previously performed human liver microsomal incubations. PF-6870961 was biosynthesized using liver cytosol, and the site of hydroxylation was shown to be on the pyrimidine using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The aldehyde oxidase (AO) inhibitor raloxifene and the xanthine oxidase inhibitor febuxostat inhibited the formation of PF-6870961 in human liver cytosol, suggesting both enzymes were involved in the metabolism of the drug. However, greater inhibition was observed with raloxifene, indicating AO is a dominant enzyme in the biotransformation. The intrinsic clearance of the drug in human liver cytosol was estimated to be 0.002 ml/min per milligram protein. This study provides important novel information at three levels: 1) it provides additional new information on the recently developed novel compound PF-5190457, the first GHS-R1a blocker that has moved to development in humans; 2) it provides an example of a reverse translational approach where a discovery in humans was brought back, validated, and further investigated at the bench level; and 3) it demonstrates the importance of considering the molybdenum-containing oxidases during the development of new drug entities. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: PF-5190457 is a novel ghrelin receptor inverse agonist that is currently undergoing clinical development for treatment of alcohol use disorder. PF-6870961, a major hydroxyl metabolite of the compound, was observed in human plasma, but was absent in human liver microsomal incubations. PF-6870961 was biosynthesized using liver cytosol, and the site of hydroxylation on the pyrimidine ring was characterized. Inhibitors of aldehyde oxidase and xanthine oxidase inhibited the formation of PF-6870961 in human liver cytosol, suggesting both enzymes were involved in the metabolism of the drug. This information is important for patient selection in subsequent clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sravani Adusumalli
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island (S.A., R.J., F.A.); Department of Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (R.S.O., T.F.R.); Section on Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research and National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Maryland (L.L.); Medication Development Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland (L.L.); and Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (L.L.)
| | - Rohitash Jamwal
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island (S.A., R.J., F.A.); Department of Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (R.S.O., T.F.R.); Section on Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research and National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Maryland (L.L.); Medication Development Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland (L.L.); and Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (L.L.)
| | - R Scott Obach
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island (S.A., R.J., F.A.); Department of Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (R.S.O., T.F.R.); Section on Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research and National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Maryland (L.L.); Medication Development Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland (L.L.); and Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (L.L.)
| | - Tim F Ryder
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island (S.A., R.J., F.A.); Department of Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (R.S.O., T.F.R.); Section on Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research and National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Maryland (L.L.); Medication Development Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland (L.L.); and Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (L.L.)
| | - Lorenzo Leggio
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island (S.A., R.J., F.A.); Department of Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (R.S.O., T.F.R.); Section on Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research and National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Maryland (L.L.); Medication Development Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland (L.L.); and Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (L.L.)
| | - Fatemeh Akhlaghi
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island (S.A., R.J., F.A.); Department of Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics, and Metabolism, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut (R.S.O., T.F.R.); Section on Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research and National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, Maryland (L.L.); Medication Development Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland (L.L.); and Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (L.L.)
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5
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Habib U. DFT analysis of the active site in catalytic metabolic redox reactions of mononuclear molybdenum enzymes. J COORD CHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/00958972.2018.1483498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Uzma Habib
- Research Center for Modeling and Simulation (RCMS), National University of Science and Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan
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6
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Paragas E, Humphreys SC, Min J, Joswig-Jones CA, Leimkühler S, Jones JP. ecoAO: A Simple System for the Study of Human Aldehyde Oxidases Role in Drug Metabolism. ACS OMEGA 2017; 2:4820-4827. [PMID: 28884164 PMCID: PMC5579547 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b01054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Although aldehyde oxidase (AO) is an important hepatic drug-metabolizing enzyme, it remains understudied and is consequently often overlooked in preclinical studies, an oversight that has resulted in the failure of multiple clinical trials. AO's preclusion to investigation stems from the following: (1) difficulties synthesizing metabolic standards due to the chemospecificity and regiospecificity of the enzyme and (2) significant inherent variability across existing in vitro systems including liver cytosol, S9 fractions, and primary hepatocytes, which lack specificity and generate discordant expression and activity profiles. Here, we describe a practical bacterial biotransformation system, ecoAO, addressing both issues simultaneously. ecoAO is a cell paste of MoCo-producing Escherichia coli strain TP1017 expressing human AO. It exhibits specific activity toward known substrates, zoniporide, 4-trans-(N,N-dimethylamino)cinnamaldehyde, O6-benzylguanine, and zaleplon; it also has utility as a biocatalyst, yielding milligram quantities of synthetically challenging metabolite standards such as 2-oxo-zoniporide. Moreover, ecoAO enables routine determination of kcat and V/K, which are essential parameters for accurate in vivo clearance predictions. Furthermore, ecoAO has potential as a preclinical in vitro screening tool for AO activity, as demonstrated by its metabolism of 3-aminoquinoline, a previously uncharacterized substrate. ecoAO promises to provide easy access to metabolites with the potential to improve pharmacokinetic clearance predictions and guide drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erickson
M. Paragas
- Department
of Chemistry, Washington State University, 99164-4630 Pullman, Washington, United States
| | - Sara C. Humphreys
- Department
of Chemistry, Washington State University, 99164-4630 Pullman, Washington, United States
| | - Joshua Min
- Department
of Chemistry, Washington State University, 99164-4630 Pullman, Washington, United States
| | - Carolyn A. Joswig-Jones
- Department
of Chemistry, Washington State University, 99164-4630 Pullman, Washington, United States
| | - Silke Leimkühler
- Department
of Molecular Enzymology, Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Straße 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Jeffrey P. Jones
- Department
of Chemistry, Washington State University, 99164-4630 Pullman, Washington, United States
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7
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Wilkinson DJ, Southall RL, Li M, Wright LM, Corfield LJ, Heeley TA, Bratby B, Mannu R, Johnson SL, Shaw V, Friett HL, Blakeburn LA, Kendrick JS, Otteneder MB. Minipig and Human Metabolism of Aldehyde Oxidase Substrates: In Vitro–In Vivo Comparisons. AAPS JOURNAL 2017; 19:1163-1174. [DOI: 10.1208/s12248-017-0087-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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8
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Rashidi MR, Soltani S. An overview of aldehyde oxidase: an enzyme of emerging importance in novel drug discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2017; 12:305-316. [DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2017.1284198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad-Reza Rashidi
- Research Center for Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Somaieh Soltani
- Drug Applied Research Center and Pharmacy Faculty, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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9
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Panoutsopoulos GI. Phenylacetaldehyde Oxidation by Freshly Prepared and Cryopreserved Guinea Pig Liver Slices: The Role of Aldehyde Oxidase. Int J Toxicol 2016; 24:103-9. [PMID: 16036769 DOI: 10.1080/10915810590936373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Phenylacetaldehyde is formed when the xenobiotic and biogenic amine 2-phenylethylamine is inactivated by a monoamine oxidase–catalyzed oxidative deamination. Exogenous phenylacetaldehyde is found in certain foodstuffs such as honey, cheese, tomatoes, and wines. 2-Phenylethylamine can trigger migraine attacks in susceptible individuals and can become fairly toxic at high intakes from foods. It may also function as a potentiator that enhances the toxicity of histamine and tyramine. The present investigation examines the metabolism of phenylacetaldehyde to phenylacetic acid in freshly prepared and in cryopreserved guinea pig liver slices. In addition, it compares the relative contribution of aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and aldehyde dehydrogenase in the oxidation of phenylacetaldehyde using specific inhibitors for each oxidizing enzyme. The inhibitors used were isovanillin for aldehyde oxidase, allopurinol for xanthine oxidase, and disulfiram for aldehyde dehydrogenase. In freshly prepared liver slices, phenylacetaldehyde was converted mainly to phenylacetic acid, with traces of 2-phenylethanol being present. Disulfiram inhibited phenylacetic acid formation by 80% to 85%, whereas isovanillin inhibited acid formation to a lesser extent (50% to 55%) and allopurinol had little or no effect. In cryopreserved liver slices, phenylacetic acid was also the main metabolite, whereas the 2-phenylethanol production was more pronounced than that in freshly prepared liver slices. Isovanillin inhibited phenylacetic acid formation by 85%, whereas disulfiram inhibited acid formation to a lesser extent (55% to 60%) and allopurinol had no effect. The results in this study have shown that, in freshly prepared and cryopreserved liver slices, phenylacetaldehyde is converted to phenylacetic acid by both aldehyde dehydrogenase and aldehyde oxidase, with no contribution from xanthine oxidase. Therefore, aldehyde dehydrogenase is not the only enzyme responsible in the metabolism of phenylacetaldehyde, but aldehyde oxidase may also be important and thus its role should not be ignored.
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10
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Structural features of guinea pig aldehyde oxidase inhibitory activities of flavonoids explored using QSAR and molecular modeling studies. Med Chem Res 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-016-1696-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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11
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Argikar UA, Potter PM, Hutzler JM, Marathe PH. Challenges and Opportunities with Non-CYP Enzymes Aldehyde Oxidase, Carboxylesterase, and UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase: Focus on Reaction Phenotyping and Prediction of Human Clearance. AAPS JOURNAL 2016; 18:1391-1405. [PMID: 27495117 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-016-9962-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Over the years, significant progress has been made in reducing metabolic instability due to cytochrome P450-mediated oxidation. High-throughput metabolic stability screening has enabled the advancement of compounds with little to no oxidative metabolism. Furthermore, high lipophilicity and low aqueous solubility of presently pursued chemotypes reduces the probability of renal excretion. As such, these low microsomal turnover compounds are often substrates for non-CYP-mediated metabolism. UGTs, esterases, and aldehyde oxidase are major enzymes involved in catalyzing such metabolism. Hepatocytes provide an excellent tool to identify such pathways including elucidation of major metabolites. To predict human PK parameters for P450-mediated metabolism, in vitro-in vivo extrapolation using hepatic microsomes, hepatocytes, and intestinal microsomes has been actively investigated. However, such methods have not been sufficiently evaluated for non-P450 enzymes. In addition to the involvement of the liver, extrahepatic enzymes (intestine, kidney, lung) are also likely to contribute to these pathways. While there has been considerable progress in predicting metabolic pathways and clearance primarily mediated by the liver, progress in characterizing extrahepatic metabolism and prediction of clearance has been slow. Well-characterized in vitro systems or in vivo animal models to assess drug-drug interaction potential and intersubject variability due to polymorphism are not available. Here we focus on the utility of appropriate in vitro studies to characterize non-CYP-mediated metabolism and to understand the enzymes involved followed by pharmacokinetic studies in the appropriately characterized surrogate species. The review will highlight progress made in establishing in vitro-in vivo correlation, predicting human clearance and avoiding costly clinical failures when non-CYP-mediated metabolic pathways are predominant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Upendra A Argikar
- Analytical Sciences and Imaging, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Philip M Potter
- Department of Chemical Biology and Therapeutics, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
| | - J Matthew Hutzler
- Q2 Solutions, Bioanalytical and ADME Labs, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Punit H Marathe
- Department of Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
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12
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Isobe T, Ohta M, Kaneko Y, Kawai H. Species differences in metabolism of ripasudil (K-115) are attributed to aldehyde oxidase. Xenobiotica 2015; 46:579-590. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2015.1096981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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13
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Nitrite reduction by molybdoenzymes: a new class of nitric oxide-forming nitrite reductases. J Biol Inorg Chem 2015; 20:403-33. [DOI: 10.1007/s00775-014-1234-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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14
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Hutzler JM, Cerny MA, Yang YS, Asher C, Wong D, Frederick K, Gilpin K. Cynomolgus Monkey as a Surrogate for Human Aldehyde Oxidase Metabolism of the EGFR Inhibitor BIBX1382. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 42:1751-60. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.114.059030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
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15
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Hutzler JM, Yang YS, Brown C, Heyward S, Moeller T. Aldehyde Oxidase Activity in Donor-Matched Fresh and Cryopreserved Human Hepatocytes and Assessment of Variability in 75 Donors. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 42:1090-7. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.114.057984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa B. Maia
- REQUIMTE/CQFB, Departamento
de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - José J. G. Moura
- REQUIMTE/CQFB, Departamento
de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
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Mu P, Zheng M, Xu M, Zheng Y, Tang X, Wang Y, Wu K, Chen Q, Wang L, Deng Y. N-Oxide Reduction of Quinoxaline-1,4-Dioxides Catalyzed by Porcine Aldehyde Oxidase SsAOX1. Drug Metab Dispos 2014; 42:511-9. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.113.055418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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18
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Sanoh S, Ohta S. Chimeric mice transplanted with human hepatocytes as a model for prediction of human drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2013; 35:71-86. [DOI: 10.1002/bdd.1864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Revised: 09/09/2013] [Accepted: 09/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Seigo Sanoh
- Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences; Hiroshima University; Hiroshima Japan
| | - Shigeru Ohta
- Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences; Hiroshima University; Hiroshima Japan
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19
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Garattini E, Terao M. Aldehyde oxidase and its importance in novel drug discovery: present and future challenges. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2013; 8:641-54. [DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2013.788497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Hutzler JM, Obach RS, Dalvie D, Zientek MA. Strategies for a comprehensive understanding of metabolism by aldehyde oxidase. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2012; 9:153-68. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2013.738668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Dalvie D, Xiang C, Kang P, Zhou S. Interspecies variation in the metabolism of zoniporide by aldehyde oxidase. Xenobiotica 2012; 43:399-408. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2012.727499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Castiglione N, Rinaldo S, Giardina G, Stelitano V, Cutruzzolà F. Nitrite and nitrite reductases: from molecular mechanisms to significance in human health and disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2012; 17:684-716. [PMID: 22304560 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2011.4196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Nitrite, previously considered physiologically irrelevant and a simple end product of endogenous nitric oxide (NO) metabolism, is now envisaged as a reservoir of NO to be activated in response to oxygen (O(2)) depletion. In the first part of this review, we summarize and compare the mechanisms of nitrite-dependent production of NO in selected bacteria and in eukaryotes. Bacterial nitrite reductases, which are copper or heme-containing enzymes, play an important role in the adaptation of pathogens to O(2) limitation and enable microrganisms to survive in the human body. In mammals, reduction of nitrite to NO under hypoxic conditions is carried out in tissues and blood by an array of metalloproteins, including heme-containing proteins and molybdenum enzymes. In humans, tissues play a more important role in nitrite reduction, not only because most tissues produce more NO than blood, but also because deoxyhemoglobin efficiently scavenges NO in blood. In the second part of the review, we outline the significance of nitrite in human health and disease and describe the recent advances and pitfalls of nitrite-based therapy, with special attention to its application in cardiovascular disorders, inflammation, and anti-bacterial defence. It can be concluded that nitrite (as well as nitrate-rich diet for long-term applications) may hold promise as therapeutic agent in vascular dysfunction and ischemic injury, as well as an effective compound able to promote angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Castiglione
- Department of Biochemical Sciences, Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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Thomasy SM, Whittem T, Bales JL, Ferrone M, Stanley SD, Maggs DJ. Pharmacokinetics of penciclovir in healthy cats following oral administration of famciclovir or intravenous infusion of penciclovir. Am J Vet Res 2012; 73:1092-9. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.73.7.1092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Dalvie D, Sun H, Xiang C, Hu Q, Jiang Y, Kang P. Effect of Structural Variation on Aldehyde Oxidase-Catalyzed Oxidation of Zoniporide. Drug Metab Dispos 2012; 40:1575-87. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.112.045823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Garattini E, Terao M. The role of aldehyde oxidase in drug metabolism. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2012; 8:487-503. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2012.663352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Akabane T, Gerst N, Naritomi Y, Masters JN, Tamura K. A Practical and Direct Comparison of Intrinsic Metabolic Clearance of Several Non-CYP Enzyme Substrates in Freshly Isolated and Cryopreserved Hepatocytes. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2012; 27:181-91. [DOI: 10.2133/dmpk.dmpk-11-rg-097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Hutzler JM, Yang YS, Albaugh D, Fullenwider CL, Schmenk J, Fisher MB. Characterization of aldehyde oxidase enzyme activity in cryopreserved human hepatocytes. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 40:267-75. [PMID: 22031625 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.042861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Substrates of aldehyde oxidase (AO), for which human clinical pharmacokinetics are reported, were selected and evaluated in pooled mixed-gender cryopreserved human hepatocytes in an effort to quantitatively characterize AO activity. Estimated hepatic clearance (Cl(h)) for BIBX1382, carbazeran, O⁶-benzylguanine, zaleplon, and XK-469 using cryopreserved hepatocytes was 18, 17, 12, <4.3, and <4.3 ml · min⁻¹ · kg⁻¹, respectively. The observed metabolic clearance in cryopreserved hepatocytes was confirmed to be a result of AO-mediated metabolism via two approaches. Metabolite identification after incubations in the presence of H₂¹⁸O confirmed that the predominant oxidative metabolite was generated by AO, as expected isotope patterns in mass spectra were observed after analysis by high-resolution mass spectrometry. Second, clearance values were efficiently attenuated upon coincubation with hydralazine, an inhibitor of AO. The low exposure after oral doses of BIBX1382 and carbazeran (∼5% F) would have been fairly well predicted using simple hepatic extraction (f(h)) values derived from cryopreserved hepatocytes. In addition, the estimated hepatic clearance value for O⁶-benzylguanine was within ∼80% of the observed total clearance in humans after intravenous administration (15 ml · min⁻¹ · kg⁻¹), indicating a reasonable level of quantitative activity from this in vitro system. However, a 3.5-fold underprediction of total clearance was observed for zaleplon, despite the 5-oxo metabolite being clearly observed. These data taken together suggest that the use of cryopreserved hepatocytes may be a practical approach for assessing AO-mediated metabolism in discovery and potentially useful for predicting hepatic clearance of AO substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Matthew Hutzler
- Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc., Translational Research (Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics), 175 Briar Ridge Road, R&D 10578, Ridgefield, CT 06877, USA.
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Sanoh S, Nozaki K, Murai H, Terashita S, Teramura T, Ohta S. Prediction of Human Metabolism of FK3453 by Aldehyde Oxidase Using Chimeric Mice Transplanted with Human or Rat Hepatocytes. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 40:76-82. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.041954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
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4-Pyridone-3-carboxamide-1-β-D-ribonucleoside triphosphate (4PyTP), a novel NAD metabolite accumulating in erythrocytes of uremic children: a biomarker for a toxic NAD analogue in other tissues? Toxins (Basel) 2011; 3:520-37. [PMID: 22069723 PMCID: PMC3202843 DOI: 10.3390/toxins3060520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2011] [Revised: 05/13/2011] [Accepted: 05/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We have identified a novel nucleotide, 4-pyridone 3/5-carboxamide ribonucleoside triphosphate (4PyTP), which accumulates in human erythrocytes during renal failure. Using plasma and erythrocyte extracts obtained from children with chronic renal failure we show that the concentration of 4PyTP is increased, as well as other soluble NAD+ metabolites (nicotinamide, N1-methylnicotinamide and 4Py-riboside) and the major nicotinamide metabolite N1-methyl-2-pyridone-5-carboxamide (2PY), with increasing degrees of renal failure. We noted that 2PY concentration was highest in the plasma of haemodialysis patients, while 4PyTP was highest in erythrocytes of children undergoing peritoneal dialysis: its concentration correlated closely with 4Py-riboside, an authentic precursor of 4PyTP, in the plasma. In the dialysis patients, GTP concentration was elevated: similar accumulation was noted previously, as a paradoxical effect in erythrocytes during treatment with immunosuppressants such as ribavirin and mycophenolate mofetil, which deplete GTP through inhibition of IMP dehydrogenase in nucleated cells such as lymphocytes. We predict that 4Py-riboside and 4Py-nucleotides bind to this enzyme and alter its activity. The enzymes that regenerate NAD+ from nicotinamide riboside also convert the drugs tiazofurin and benzamide riboside into NAD+ analogues that inhibit IMP dehydrogenase more effectively than the related ribosides: we therefore propose that the accumulation of 4PyTP in erythrocytes during renal failure is a marker for the accumulation of a related toxic NAD+ analogue that inhibits IMP dehydrogenase in other cells.
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Garattini E, Terao M. Increasing recognition of the importance of aldehyde oxidase in drug development and discovery. Drug Metab Rev 2011; 43:374-86. [DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2011.560606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Akabane T, Tanaka K, Irie M, Terashita S, Teramura T. Case report of extensive metabolism by aldehyde oxidase in humans: Pharmacokinetics and metabolite profile of FK3453 in rats, dogs, and humans. Xenobiotica 2011; 41:372-84. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2010.549970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Tayama Y, Sugihara K, Sanoh S, Miyake K, Morita S, Kitamura S, Ohta S. Effect of Tea Beverages on Aldehyde Oxidase Activity. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2011; 26:94-101. [DOI: 10.2133/dmpk.dmpk-10-nt-078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Pryde DC, Dalvie D, Hu Q, Jones P, Obach RS, Tran TD. Aldehyde Oxidase: An Enzyme of Emerging Importance in Drug Discovery. J Med Chem 2010; 53:8441-60. [DOI: 10.1021/jm100888d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 282] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David C. Pryde
- WorldWide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Sandwich, Kent, CT13 9NJ, England
| | - Deepak Dalvie
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer Global Research and Development, 10628 Science Center Drive, La Jolla, California 92121
| | - Qiyue Hu
- WorldWide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Global Research and Development, 10628 Science Center Drive, La Jolla, California 92121
| | - Peter Jones
- WorldWide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Sandwich, Kent, CT13 9NJ, England
| | - R. Scott Obach
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Eastern Point Road, Groton, Connecticut 06340
| | - Thien-Duc Tran
- WorldWide Medicinal Chemistry, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Sandwich, Kent, CT13 9NJ, England
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Abstract
Together with xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase (AO) is a major member of a relatively small family of molybdenum hydroxylases. Both enzymes are homodimers with a subunit molecular weight of about 150 kDa and exhibit catalytic activity only as a dimer. An AO subunit contains a molybdopterin cofactor, an FAD and two different 2Fe-2S redox centers. The enzyme catalyzes oxidation of a wide range of endogenous and exogenous aldehydes and N-heterocyclic aromatic compounds. N-heterocycle-containing drugs such as methotrexate, 6-mercaptopurine, cinchona alkaloids and famciclovir are oxidized by this enzyme. Marked species differences have been well documented for the AO-catalyzed metabolism of drugs including methotrexate and famciclovir. In addition, a large rat strain variation has also been demonstrated in the oxidation activity of benzaldehyde and methotrexate. Marked differences in species, large differences in rat strains and individual differences in AO activities in some rat strains have been reported. However, little has been elucidated about any related molecular biological mechanisms. We examined the mechanism of individual variations and strain difference of rat AO using the technology of molecular biology. Our recent studies regarding the inter- and intra-difference of AO activities in rats are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Itoh
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Japan.
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Abstract
Aldehyde oxidases (EC 1.2.3.1) are a small group of structurally conserved cytosolic proteins represented in both the animal and plant kingdoms. In vertebrates, aldehyde oxidases constitute the small sub-family of molybdo-flavoenzymes, along with the evolutionarily and structurally related protein, xanthine oxidoreductase. These enzymes require a molybdo-pterin cofactor (molybdenum cofactor, MoCo) and flavin adenine dinucleotide for their catalytic activity. Aldehyde oxidases have broad substrate specificity and catalyse the hydroxylation of N-heterocycles and the oxidation of aldehydes to the corresponding acid. In humans, a single aldehyde oxidase gene (AOX1) and two pseudogenes clustering on a short stretch of chromosome 2q are known. In other mammals, a variable number of structurally conserved aldehyde oxidase genes has been described. Four genes (Aox1, Aox3, Aox4 and Aox3l1), coding for an equivalent number of catalytically active enzymes, are present in the mouse and rat genomes. Although human AOX1 and its homologous proteins are best known as drug metabolising enzymes, the physiological substrate(s) and function(s) are as yet unknown. The present paper provides an update of the available information on the evolutionary history, tissue- and cell-specific distribution and function of mammalian aldehyde oxidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Garattini
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, via La Masa 19, 20156 Milano, Italy.
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Rashidi MR, Nazemiyeh H. Inhibitory effects of flavonoids on molybdenum hydroxylases activity. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2010; 6:133-52. [DOI: 10.1517/17425250903426164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Zweier JL, Li H, Samouilov A, Liu X. Mechanisms of nitrite reduction to nitric oxide in the heart and vessel wall. Nitric Oxide 2010; 22:83-90. [PMID: 20044016 DOI: 10.1016/j.niox.2009.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2009] [Revised: 12/10/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is an important regulator of a variety of biological functions, and also has a role in the pathogenesis of cellular injury. It had been generally accepted that NO is solely generated in biological tissues by specific nitric oxide synthases (NOS) which metabolize arginine to citrulline with the formation of NO. However, over the last 15 years, nitrite-mediated NO production has been shown to be an important mechanism of NO formation in the heart and cardiovascular system. Now numerous studies have demonstrated that nitrite can be an important source rather than simply a product of NO in mammalian cells and tissues and can be a potential vasodilator drug for cardiovascular diseases. There are a variety of mechanisms of nitrite reduction to NO and it is now appreciated that this process, while enhanced under hypoxic conditions, also occurs under normoxia. Several methods, including electron paramagnetic resonance, chemiluminescence NO analyzer, and NO electrode have been utilized to measure, quantitate, and image nitrite-mediated NO formation. Results reveal that nitrite-dependent NO generation plays critical physiological and pathological roles, and is controlled by oxygen tension, pH, reducing substrates and nitrite levels. In this manuscript, we review the mechanisms of nitrite-mediated NO formation and the effects of oxygen on this process with a focus on how this occurs in the heart and vessels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay L Zweier
- Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, The Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, 473 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Zhou X, Zhuo X, Xie F, Kluetzman K, Shu YZ, Humphreys WG, Ding X. Role of CYP2A5 in the clearance of nicotine and cotinine: insights from studies on a Cyp2a5-null mouse model. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2009; 332:578-87. [PMID: 19923441 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.109.162610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
CYP2A5, a mouse cytochrome P450 monooxygenase that shows high similarities to human CYP2A6 and CYP2A13 in protein sequence and substrate specificity, is expressed in multiple tissues, including the liver, kidney, lung, and nasal mucosa. Heterologously expressed CYP2A5 is active in the metabolism of both endogenous substrates, such as testosterone, and xenobiotic compounds, such as nicotine and cotinine. To determine the biological and pharmacological functions of CYP2A5 in vivo, we have generated a Cyp2a5-null mouse. Homozygous Cyp2a5-null mice are viable and fertile; they show no evidence of embryonic lethality or developmental deficits; and they have normal circulating levels of testosterone and progesterone. The Cyp2a5-null mouse and wild-type mouse were then used for determination of the roles of CYP2A5 in the metabolism of nicotine and its major circulating metabolite, cotinine. The results indicated that the Cyp2a5-null mouse has lower hepatic nicotine 5'-hydroxylation activity in vitro, and slower systemic clearance of both nicotine and cotinine in vivo. For both compounds, a substantially longer plasma half-life and a greater area under the concentration-time curve were observed for the Cyp2a5-null mice, compared with wild-type mice. Further pharmacokinetics analysis confirmed that the brain levels of nicotine and cotinine are also influenced by the Cyp2a5 deletion. These findings provide direct evidence that CYP2A5 is the major nicotine and cotinine oxidase in mouse liver. The Cyp2a5-null mouse will be valuable for in vivo studies on the role of CYP2A5 in drug metabolism and chemical toxicity, and for future production of CYP2A6- and CYP2A13-humanized mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhou
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, Empire State Plaza, Albany, NY 12201-0509, USA.
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Fukiya K, Itoh K, Yamaguchi S, Kishiba A, Adachi M, Watanabe N, Tanaka Y. A Single Amino Acid Substitution Confers High Cinchonidine Oxidation Activity Comparable with That of Rabbit to Monkey Aldehyde Oxidase 1. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 38:302-7. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.109.030064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Li H, Kundu TK, Zweier JL. Characterization of the magnitude and mechanism of aldehyde oxidase-mediated nitric oxide production from nitrite. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:33850-8. [PMID: 19801639 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.019125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) is a cytosolic enzyme with an important role in drug and xenobiotic metabolism. Although AO has structural similarity to bacterial nitrite reductases, it is unknown whether AO-catalyzed nitrite reduction can be an important source of NO. The mechanism, magnitude, and quantitative importance of AO-mediated nitrite reduction in tissues have not been reported. To investigate this pathway and its quantitative importance, EPR spectroscopy, chemiluminescence NO analyzer, and immunoassays of cGMP formation were performed. The kinetics and magnitude of AO-dependent NO formation were characterized. In the presence of typical aldehyde substrates or NADH, AO reduced nitrite to NO. Kinetics of AO-catalyzed nitrite reduction followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics under anaerobic conditions. Under physiological conditions, nitrite levels are far below its measured K(m) value in the presence of either the flavin site electron donor NADH or molybdenum site aldehyde electron donors. Under aerobic conditions with the FAD site-binding substrate, NADH, AO-mediated NO production was largely maintained, although with aldehyde substrates oxygen-dependent inhibition was seen. Oxygen tension, substrate, and pH levels were important regulators of AO-catalyzed NO generation. From kinetic data, it was determined that during ischemia hepatic, pulmonary, or myocardial AO and nitrite levels were sufficient to result in NO generation comparable to or exceeding maximal production by constitutive NO synthases. Thus, AO-catalyzed nitrite reduction can be an important source of NO generation, and its NO production will be further increased by therapeutic administration of nitrite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Li
- Center for Biomedical EPR Spectroscopy and Imaging, the Davis Heart and Lung Research Institute, Columbus, Ohio 43210-1252, USA.
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Liu P, Liang S, Wang BJ, Guo RC. Construction of expression system of rabbit aldehyde oxidase cDNA for the clarification of species differences. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2009; 34:205-11. [DOI: 10.1007/bf03191175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Itoh K, Asakawa T, Hoshino K, Adachi M, Fukiya K, Watanabe N, Tanaka Y. Functional analysis of aldehyde oxidase using expressed chimeric enzyme between monkey and rat. Biol Pharm Bull 2009; 32:31-5. [PMID: 19122276 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.32.31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) is a homodimer with a subunit molecular mass of approximately 150 kDa. Each subunit consists of about 20 kDa 2Fe-2S cluster domain storing reducing equivalents, about 40 kDa flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD) domain and about 85 kDa molybdenum cofactor (MoCo) domain containing a substrate binding site. In order to clarify the properties of each domain, especially substrate binding domain, chimeric cDNAs were constructed by mutual exchange of 2Fe-2S/FAD and MoCo domains between monkey and rat. Chimeric monkey/rat AO was referred to one with monkey type 2Fe-2S/FAD domains and a rat type MoCo domain. Rat/monkey AO was vice versa. AO-catalyzed 2-oxidation activities of (S)-RS-8359 were measured using the expressed enzyme in Escherichia coli. Substrate inhibition was seen in rat AO and chimeric monkey/rat AO, but not in monkey AO and chimeric rat/monkey AO, suggesting that the phenomenon might be dependent on the natures of MoCo domain of rat. A biphasic Eadie-Hofstee profile was observed in monkey AO and chimeric rat/monkey AO, but not rat AO and chimeric monkey/rat AO, indicating that the biphasic profile might be related to the properties of MoCo domain of monkey. Two-fold greater V(max) values were observed in monkey AO than in chimeric rat/monkey AO, and in chimeric monkey/rat AO than in rat AO, suggesting that monkey has the more effective electron transfer system than rat. Thus, the use of chimeric enzymes revealed that 2Fe-2S/FAD and MoCo domains affect the velocity and the quantitative profiles of AO-catalyzed (S)-RS-8359 2-oxidation, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Itoh
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Japan
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Knutson CG, Rubinson EH, Akingbade D, Anderson CS, Stec DF, Petrova KV, Kozekov ID, Guengerich FP, Rizzo CJ, Marnett LJ. Oxidation and glycolytic cleavage of etheno and propano DNA base adducts. Biochemistry 2009; 48:800-9. [PMID: 19132922 PMCID: PMC2975463 DOI: 10.1021/bi801654j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
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Non-invasive strategies for the analysis of endogenous DNA damage are of interest for the purpose of monitoring genomic exposure to biologically produced chemicals. We have focused our research on the biological processing of DNA adducts and how this may impact the observed products in biological matrixes. Preliminary research has revealed that pyrimidopurinone DNA adducts are subject to enzymatic oxidation in vitro and in vivo and that base adducts are better substrates for oxidation than the corresponding 2′-deoxynucleosides. We tested the possibility that structurally similar exocyclic base adducts may be good candidates for enzymatic oxidation in vitro. We investigated the in vitro oxidation of several endogenously occurring etheno adducts [1,N2-ε-guanine (1,N2-ε-Gua), N2,3-ε-Gua, heptanone-1,N2-ε-Gua, 1,N6-ε-adenine (1,N6-ε-Ade), and 3,N4-ε-cytosine (3,N4-ε-Cyt)] and their corresponding 2′-deoxynucleosides. Both 1,N2-ε-Gua and heptanone-1,N2-ε-Gua were substrates for enzymatic oxidation in rat liver cytosol; heteronuclear NMR experiments revealed that oxidation occurred on the imidazole ring of each substrate. In contrast, the partially or fully saturated pyrimidopurinone analogues [i.e., 5,6-dihydro-M1G and 1,N2-propanoguanine (PGua)] and their 2′-deoxynucleoside derivatives were not oxidized. The 2′-deoxynucleoside adducts, 1,N2-ε-dG and 1,N6-ε-dA, underwent glycolytic cleavage in rat liver cytosol. Together, these data suggest that multiple exocyclic adducts undergo oxidation and glycolytic cleavage in vitro in rat liver cytosol, in some instances in succession. These multiple pathways of biotransformation produce an array of products. Thus, the biotransformation of exocyclic adducts may lead to an additional class of biomarkers suitable for use in animal and human studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles G Knutson
- A. B. Hancock Jr. Memorial Laboratory for Cancer Research, Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-0146, USA
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Role of the molybdoflavoenzyme aldehyde oxidase homolog 2 in the biosynthesis of retinoic acid: generation and characterization of a knockout mouse. Mol Cell Biol 2008; 29:357-77. [PMID: 18981221 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01385-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The mouse aldehyde oxidase AOH2 (aldehyde oxidase homolog 2) is a molybdoflavoenzyme. Harderian glands are the richest source of AOH2, although the protein is detectable also in sebaceous glands, epidermis, and other keratinized epithelia. The levels of AOH2 in the Harderian gland and skin are controlled by genetic background, being maximal in CD1 and C57BL/6 and minimal in DBA/2, CBA, and 129/Sv strains. Testosterone is a negative regulator of AOH2 in Harderian glands. Purified AOH2 oxidizes retinaldehyde into retinoic acid, while it is devoid of pyridoxal-oxidizing activity. Aoh2(-/-) mice, the first aldehyde oxidase knockout animals ever generated, are viable and fertile. The data obtained for this knockout model indicate a significant role of AOH2 in the local synthesis and biodisposition of endogenous retinoids in the Harderian gland and skin. The Harderian gland's transcriptome of knockout mice demonstrates overall downregulation of direct retinoid-dependent genes as well as perturbations in pathways controlling lipid homeostasis and cellular secretion, particularly in sexually immature animals. The skin of knockout mice is characterized by thickening of the epidermis in basal conditions and after UV light exposure. This has correlates in the corresponding transcriptome, which shows enrichment and overall upregulation of genes involved in hypertrophic responses.
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O'Connor D, Jones P, Chambers MS, Maxey R, Szekeres HJ, Szeto N, Scott-Stevens P, Macleod AM, Braun M, Cato B. Aldehyde oxidase and its contribution to the metabolism of a structurally novel, functionally selective GABAAα5-subtype inverse agonist. Xenobiotica 2008; 36:315-30. [PMID: 16684711 DOI: 10.1080/00498250600567903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
(3-Tert-butyl-7-(5-methylisoxazol-3-yl)-2-(1-methyl-1H-1,2,4-triazol-5-ylmethoxy)pyrazolo[1,5-d] [1,2,4]triazine was recently identified as a functionally selective, inverse agonist at the benzodiazepine site of GABA(A) alpha5-containing receptors, which enhances performance in animal models of cognition. The routes of metabolism of this compound in rat, dog, rhesus monkey and human in vitro systems, and in vivo in rat, dog and rhesus monkey have been characterized. The current study demonstrates that both a cytosolic oxidative reaction and cytochrome P450 play important roles in the metabolism of the compound. Chemical inhibition studies showed the oxidation in human cytosol to be catalysed predominantly by aldehyde oxidase rather than the related enzyme, xanthine oxidase. The aldehyde oxidase-mediated metabolites were present in vitro and in vivo in both rat and rhesus monkey, and also in vitro in man. They were absent both in vitro and in vivo in dog.
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Affiliation(s)
- D O'Connor
- Merck Sharp and Dohme Research Laboratories, The Neuroscience Research Centre, Terlings Park, Harlow, UK.
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Itoh K, Yamamura M, Muramatsu S, Hoshino K, Masubuchi A, Sasaki T, Tanaka Y. Stereospecific oxidation of the (S)-enantiomer of RS-8359, a selective and reversible monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) inhibitor, by aldehyde oxidase. Xenobiotica 2008; 35:561-73. [PMID: 16192108 DOI: 10.1080/00498250500202106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In a previous paper by the authors on RS-8359, a new selective and reversible monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) inhibitor, it was reported that the (S)-enantiomer of RS-8359 is rapidly eliminated from rats, monkeys and humans as a result of the formation of a 2-oxidative metabolite. The present study investigates the properties of the enzyme responsible for the 2-oxidation of RS-8359. Subcellular localization, cofactor requirement and the inhibitory effects of typical compounds were studied using rat liver preparations. In addition, the enzyme was purified from rat liver cytosol for further characterization. The enzyme activity was localized in the cytosolic fraction without the need for any cofactor and was extensively inhibited by menadione, chlorpromazine and quinacrine. The purified enzyme was also a homodimer with a monomeric molecular weight of 140 kDa and it had an A280/A450 ratio of 5.1 in the absorption spectrum. The results suggest that the enzyme responsible for the biotransformation of RS-8359 to give the 2-keto derivative is aldehyde oxidase (EC 1.2.3.1). The reaction of aldehyde oxidase is highly stereoselective for the (S)-configuration of RS-8359 and the (9R)-configuration of cinchona alkaloids.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Itoh
- Department of Biopharmaceutics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Japan
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Itoh K, Maruyama H, Adachi M, Hoshino K, Watanabe N, Tanaka Y. Lack of dimer formation ability in rat strains with low aldehyde oxidase activity. Xenobiotica 2008; 37:709-16. [PMID: 17620217 DOI: 10.1080/00498250701397713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Aldehyde oxidase (AO) is a homodimer with a molecular weight of 300 kDa. To clarify the reasons for the well-known differences in rat strains, we set out to study the relationship between AO activity and the expression levels of its dimer. AO-catalyzed 2-oxidation activity of (S)-RS-8359 was measured in liver cytosols from ten rat strains. The expression levels of AO dimeric protein were evaluated by the native-PAGE/Western blot. Rat strains with low AO activity showed only a monomer, whereas strains with high activity overwhelmingly exhibited a dimer. Exceptionally, one strain in the high AO activity group displayed complex mixed expression patterns of low and high AO activity groups. However, there was a good relationship between AO activity and the expression levels of a dimer, but not of a monomer. The results suggest that rat strains with low AO activity lack the ability to produce a dimer necessary for catalytic activity, and AO differences in rat strains should be discussed in terms of the expression levels of the dimer itself.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Itoh
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University, Japan
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Li H, Cui H, Kundu TK, Alzawahra W, Zweier JL. Nitric oxide production from nitrite occurs primarily in tissues not in the blood: critical role of xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:17855-63. [PMID: 18424432 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m801785200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that nitrite is an important storage form and source of NO in biological systems. Controversy remains, however, regarding whether NO formation from nitrite occurs primarily in tissues or in blood. Questions also remain regarding the mechanism, magnitude, and contributions of several alternative pathways of nitrite-dependent NO generation in biological systems. To characterize the mechanism and magnitude of NO generation from nitrite, electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, chemiluminescence NO analyzer, and immunoassays of cGMP formation were performed. The addition of nitrite triggered a large amount of NO generation in tissues such as heart and liver, but only trace NO production in blood. Carbon monoxide increased NO release from blood, suggesting that hemoglobin acts to scavenge NO not to generate it. Administration of the xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitor oxypurinol or aldehyde oxidase (AO) inhibitor raloxifene significantly decreased NO generation from nitrite in heart or liver. NO formation rates increased dramatically with decreasing pH or with decreased oxygen tension. Isolated enzyme studies further confirm that XO and AO, but not hemoglobin, are critical nitrite reductases. Overall, NO generation from nitrite mainly occurs in tissues not in the blood, with XO and AO playing critical roles in nitrite reduction, and this process is regulated by pH, oxygen tension, nitrite, and reducing substrate concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Li
- Center for Biomedical EPR Spectroscopy and Imaging, Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Adachi M, Itoh K, Masubuchi A, Watanabe N, Tanaka Y. Construction and expression of mutant cDNAs responsible for genetic polymorphism in aldehyde oxidase in Donryu strain rats. BMB Rep 2008; 40:1021-7. [PMID: 18047800 DOI: 10.5483/bmbrep.2007.40.6.1021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We demonstrated the genetic polymorphism of aldehyde oxidase (AO) in Donryu strain rats: the ultrarapid metabolizer (UM) with nucleotide mutation of (377G, 2604C) coding for amino acid substitution of (110Gly, 852Val), extensive metabolizer (EM) with (377G/A, 2604C/T) coding for (110Gly/Ser, 852Val/Ala), and poor metabolizer (PM) with (377A, 2604T) coding for (110Ser, 852Ala), respectively. The results suggested that 377G > A and/or 2604C > T should be responsible for the genetic polymorphism. In this study, we constructed an E. coli expression system of four types of AO cDNA including Mut-1 with (377G, 2604T) and Mut-2 with (377A, 2604C) as well as naturally existing nucleotide sequences of UM and PM in order to clarify which one is responsible for the polymorphism. Mut-1 and Mut-2 showed almost the same high and low activity as that of the UM and PM groups, respectively. Thus, the expression study of mutant AO cDNA directly revealed that the nucleotide substitution of 377G > A, but not that of 2604C > T, will play a critical role in the genetic polymorphism of AO in Donryu strain rats. The reason amino acid substitution will cause genetic polymorphism in AO activity was discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayuko Adachi
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University, Sendai, Japan
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Asakawa T, Itoh K, Adachi M, Hoshino K, Watanabe N, Tanaka Y. Properties of 130 kDa Subunit of Monkey Aldehyde Oxidase. Biol Pharm Bull 2008; 31:380-5. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.31.380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tasuku Asakawa
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University
| | - Kunio Itoh
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University
| | - Mayuko Adachi
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University
| | - Kouichi Hoshino
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University
| | - Nobuaki Watanabe
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Daiichi-Sankyo Co., Ltd
| | - Yorihisa Tanaka
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Tohoku Pharmaceutical University
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