Practical aspects of objective lens selection for confocal and multiphoton digital imaging techniques

Fundamentals of Microscopy

The light (or optical) microscope is the icon of science. The aphorism "seeing is believing" is often quoted in scientific papers involving microscopy. Unlike many scientific instruments, the light microscope will deliver an image however badly it is set up. Fluorescence microscopy is a widely used research tool across all disciplines of biological and biomedical science. Most universities and research institutions have microscopes, including confocal microscopes. This introductory paper in a series detailing advanced light microscopy techniques explains the foundations of both electron and light microscopy for biologists and life scientists working with the mouse. An explanation is given of how an image is formed. A description is given of how to set up a light microscope, whether it be a brightfield light microscope on the laboratory bench, a widefield fluorescence microscope, or a confocal microscope. These explanations are accompanied by operational protocols. A full explanation on how to set up and adjust a microscope according to the principles of Köhler illumination is given. The importance of Nyquist sampling is discussed. Guidelines are given on how to choose the best microscope to image the particular sample or slide preparation that you are working with. These are the basic principles of microscopy that a researcher must have an understanding of when operating core bioimaging facility instruments, in order to collect high-quality images. © 2020 The Authors. Basic Protocol 1: Setting up Köhler illumination for a brightfield microscope Basic Protocol 2: Aligning the fluorescence bulb and setting up Köhler illumination for a widefield fluorescence microscope Basic Protocol 3: Generic protocol for operating a confocal microscope.

Laser scanning microscopy approach for semiquantitation of in vitro dermal particle penetration

Skin penetration of nanoparticles is a recent research area in focus for the aim of development of topical nanoparticulate delivery systems as well as for health risk analysis. So far, monitoring skin penetration of nanoparticles is mostly based on qualitative microscopical examination. Here, we describe an experimental approach for extracting semiquantitative data from multiphoton images of skin specimens treated with gold nanoparticles. This will aid in depicting the factors responsible for enhancing or limiting nanoparticle penetration through the skin barrier.

Depth profiling of gold nanoparticles and characterization of point spread functions in reconstructed and human skin using multiphoton microscopy

Multiphoton microscopy has become popular in studying dermal nanoparticle penetration. This necessitates studying the imaging parameters of multiphoton microscopy in skin as an imaging medium, in terms of achievable detection depths and the resolution limit. This would simulate real-case scenarios rather than depending on theoretical values determined under ideal conditions. This study has focused on depth profiling of sub-resolution gold nanoparticles (AuNP) in reconstructed (fixed and unfixed) and human skin using multiphoton microscopy. Point spread functions (PSF) were determined for the used water-immersion objective of 63×/NA = 1.2. Factors such as skin-tissue compactness and the presence of wrinkles were found to deteriorate the accuracy of depth profiling. A broad range of AuNP detectable depths (20-100 μm) in reconstructed skin was observed. AuNP could only be detected up to ∼14 μm depth in human skin. Lateral (0.5 ± 0.1 μm) and axial (1.0 ± 0.3 μm) PSF in reconstructed and human specimens were determined. Skin cells and intercellular components didn't degrade the PSF with depth. In summary, the imaging parameters of multiphoton microscopy in skin and practical limitations encountered in tracking nanoparticle penetration using this approach were investigated.

Basic confocal microscopy

This unit introduces the reader to the basic principles of confocal microscopy and the design and capabilities of current confocal microscopes. The advantages and disadvantages of confocal microscopy compared to other techniques for fluorescence imaging are described. There are also practical guidelines for sample preparation and optimization of imaging parameters, as well as examples of some of the applications of confocal microscopy.

Avoiding twisted pixels: ethical guidelines for the appropriate use and manipulation of scientific digital images

Digital imaging has provided scientists with new opportunities to acquire and manipulate data using techniques that were difficult or impossible to employ in the past. Because digital images are easier to manipulate than film images, new problems have emerged. One growing concern in the scientific community is that digital images are not being handled with sufficient care. The problem is twofold: (1) the very small, yet troubling, number of intentional falsifications that have been identified, and (2) the more common unintentional, inappropriate manipulation of images for publication. Journals and professional societies have begun to address the issue with specific digital imaging guidelines. Unfortunately, the guidelines provided often do not come with instructions to explain their importance. Thus they deal with what should or should not be done, but not the associated 'why' that is required for understanding the rules. This article proposes 12 guidelines for scientific digital image manipulation and discusses the technical reasons behind these guidelines. These guidelines can be incorporated into lab meetings and graduate student training in order to provoke discussion and begin to bring an end to the culture of "data beautification".