In vitro corrosion resistance of titanium made using different fabrication methods

Multistage implantology-orthodontic-prosthetic treatment: A case report

BACKGROUND AND OVERVIEW

Patients increasingly expect esthetic and comfortable fixed restorations on implants, are aware how important it is to maintain healthy tooth tissue, and draw attention to the final result of treatment.

CASE DESCRIPTION

In this case report, the authors describe implantology-orthodontic-prosthetic treatment provided on a patient who reported symptoms of head, back, and neck pain and had an impaired prosthetic plane, lack of space for prosthetic crowns after the introduction of the implants and no good treatment plan, and broken tooth roots of the mandibular anterior teeth. In addition, the patient wanted to correct the shape and color of the rest of her teeth. The authors present the different stages of the implantology-orthodontic-prosthetic treatment and the final result after treatment. The patient was satisfied with the achieved results of the treatment in terms of functionality and esthetics. She felt a significant reduction in pain in the temporal, masseter, and sternocleidomastoid muscles. The clenching of teeth at night decreased, and she began to sleep better. Her well-being improved.

CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS

Before the beginning of the treatment, dentists should make an accurate diagnosis and determine if patients qualify for the treatment and the appropriate materials are selected. Achieving the desired functional and esthetic effect often requires cooperation with physicians in various specialties and multistage treatment.

Effect of chemical surface treatment of titanium on its bond with dental ceramics

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Airborne-particle abrasion of titanium is a clinically accepted method of surface preparation. As a side effect of airborne-particle abrasion, particles of the abrasive material get embedded into the surface. How particle presence or removal from the titanium surface affects the strength of the titanium-ceramic bond is unclear.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this in vitro study was to determine the effect of removing Al₂O₃ particles embedded into the surface by means of chemical surface treatment on the strength of the titanium-ceramic bond.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Titanium (TritanCpTi 1, Dentaurum, 99.5% Ti) disks were airborne-particle abraded with 110 μm Al₂O₃ at a pressure of 0.4 MPa and an angle of approximately 45 degrees. The surface was etched chemically using 1 of 8 reagents, and the veneering ceramic applied and fired. The strength of the metal-ceramic bond was determined using the shear strength test. Further, the effect of thermal fatigue on the bond strength was evaluated. The results were analyzed with 2-way ANOVA and the Tukey honest significant difference (HSD) test (α=.05). Fractographic investigations and microscopic tests were also performed to determine the quality of the titanium-ceramic bond.

RESULTS

Effective etching of the titanium surface and removal of Al₂O₃ particles included a 30% water solution of HNO₃ + 3% HF, a mixture of HNO₃ + HF + glycerin, a 4% solution of HF in H₂O₂, and a 4% solution of HF in H₂O. A statistically significant difference (of about 50%) in bond strength was found between the groups subjected to chemical etching and the control group (P<.05). Additionally, a statistically significant difference (about 25%) was found after thermocycling (P<.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Removing the Al₂O₃ particles embedded into the titanium surface after airborne-particle abrasion lowers the strength of the titanium-ceramic bond (P<.05). Thermocycling also weakens the strength of the titanium-ceramic bond, regardless of the surface preparation (P<.05).

Accelerated Degradation Behavior and Cytocompatibility of Pure Iron Treated with Sandblasting

Fe-based materials are of interest for use in biodegradable implants. However, their corrosion rate in the biological environment may be too slow for the targeted applications. In this work, sandblasting is applied as a successful surface treatment for increasing the degradation rate of pure iron in simulated body fluid. Two sandblasting surfaces with different roughness present various surface morphologies but similar degradation products. Electrochemistry tests revealed that sandblasted samples have a higher corrosion rate compared to that of bare iron, and even more noteworthy, the degradation rate of sandblasted samples remains significantly higher during long-term immersion tests. On the basis of our experimental results, the most plausible reasons behind the fast degradation rate are the special properties of sandblasted surfaces, including the change of surface composition (for the early stage), high roughness (occluded surface sites), and high density of dislocations. Furthermore, the cytocompatibility was studied on sandblasting surfaces using human osteoblast-like cells (MG-63) by indirect and direct contact methods. Results revealed that sandblasting treatment brings no adverse effect to the growth of MG-63 cells. This work demonstrates the significant potential of sandblasting for controlling the degradation behavior of iron-based materials for biomedical applications.

Biological Behaviour and Enhanced Anticorrosive Performance of the Nitrided Superelastic Ti-23Nb-0.7Ta-2Zr-0.5N Alloy

The influence of gas nitriding surface treatment on the superelastic Ti-23Nb-0.7Ta-2Zr-0.5N alloy was evaluated. A thorough characterization of bare and nitrided Ti-based alloy and pure Ti was performed in terms of surface film composition and morphology, electrochemical behaviour, and short term osteoblast response. XPS analysis showed that the nitriding treatment strongly influenced the composition (nitrides and oxynitrides) and surface properties both of the substrate and of the bulk alloy. SEM images revealed that the nitrided surface appears as a similar dotted pattern caused by the formation of N-rich domains coexisting with less nitrided domains, while before treatment only topographical features could be observed. All the electrochemical results confirmed the high chemical stability of the nitride and oxynitride coating and the superiority of the applied treatment. The values of the corrosion parameters ascertained the excellent corrosion resistance of the coated alloy in the real functional conditions from the human body. Cell culture experiments with MG63 osteoblasts demonstrated that the studied biomaterials do not elicit any toxic effects and support cell adhesion and enhanced cell proliferation. Altogether, these data indicate that the nitrided Ti-23Nb-0.7Ta-2Zr-0.5N alloy is the most suitable substrate for application in bone implantology.

Effect of Surface Treatment of Titanium Elements on the Bond Strength to Zirconium Dioxide

The aim of the study was to examine the effect of surface treatment of titanium elements on the bond strength to zirconium dioxide. Forty cylindrical titanium discs (Tritan CpTi 1) were divided into four groups (n=10) that were subject to: grinding (Group A), grinding and acid-etching with 5% HF (Group B), sandblasting with 60μm alumina particles (Group C) and sandblasting with 60μm alumina particles and acid-etching with 5% HF (Group D). Prepared materials were bonded to cylindrical discs made of zirconium dioxide (Ceramill Zi) by composite cement (Panavia F 2.0). The specimens were tested for the shear bond strength. The load was applied to the moment of the bond failure. Than the debonded specimens were vertically sectioned and the fractographic analysis of interfacial fractures under SEM as well as the analysis of chemical composition of the obtained fractures using radiographic spectrum were performed. The results were subject to the statistical analysis by using the analysis of variance. The highest values of bond strength were obtained for specimens whose surface was sandblasted and abraded. Fractographic investigation and the analysis of chemical composition of the cross-sections of the interfacial fractures revealed that the fracture occurred at the titanium-resin cement interface. Air abrasion treatment considerably improves the titanium and composite cement bonding and should be recommended for cementation of prosthodontic restorations constructed on titanium implants.

Surface characteristics and castability of Zr-14Nb alloy dental castings

The purpose of this study was to evaluate mechanical properties, surface characteristics and castability of Zr-14Nb dental castings. The mean 0.2% proof and ultimate tensile strengths of Zr-14Nb were approximately 68% and 76% those of Ti-6Al-7Nb, respectively, while they were comparable to Co-29Cr-6Mo. Elongation of Zr-14Nb was the highest of all alloys tested. The hardened reaction layer was formed on the surfaces of the Zr-14Nb castings. The layer consisted of oxygen and aluminum originating form investment. The castability of Zr-14Nb was comparable to that of Ti-6Al-7Nb. Dental castings of Zr-14Nb reveal mechanical properties that were within the range of the other dental alloys. Further improvements in castability and minimization of the surface reaction layer are needed for applications in dental prostheses.

Evaluation of taper joints with combined fatigue and crevice corrosion testing: comparison to human explanted modular prostheses

The requirement for revision surgery of total joint replacements is increasing and modular joint replacement implants have been developed to provide adjustable prosthetic revision systems with improved intra-operative flexibility. An electrochemical study of the corrosion resistance of the interface between the distal and proximal modules of a modular prosthesis was performed in combination with a cyclic fatigue test. The complexity resides in the existence of interfaces between the distal part, the proximal part, and the dynamometric screw. A new technique for evaluating the resistance to cyclic dynamic corrosion with crevice stimulation was used and the method is presented. In addition, two components of the proximal module of explanted Ti6Al4V and Ti6Al7Nb prostheses were investigated by optical and electron microscopy. Our results reveal that: The electrolyte penetrates into the interface between the distal and proximal modules during cyclic dynamic fatigue tests, the distal module undergoes cracking and corrosion was generated at the interface between the two models; The comparison of the explanted proximal parts with the similar prostheses evaluated following cyclic dynamic crevice corrosion testing showed that there were significant similarities indicating that this method is suitable for evaluating materials used in the fabrication of modular prostheses.

Microstructural Analysis of Ti-6Al-4V Alloy after Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation (PIII)

The search for alloys with improved high-temperature specific strength and creep-resistance properties for aerospace applications has led in the last decades to sustained research activities to develop new alloys and/or improve existing ones. Titanium and its alloys are excellent for applications in structural components submitted to high temperatures owing to their high strength to weight ratio, good corrosion resistance and metallurgical stability. Its high creep resistance is of great importance in enhancing engine performance. However, the affinity by oxygen is one of main factors that limit its application as structural material at high temperatures. Materials with adequate behavior at high temperatures and aggressive environmental became a scientific requirement, technological and economically nowadays. The objective of this work is the mechanical and microstructural characterization of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy after treatment by nitrogen Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation (PIII) process. The aim of this process is the improvement of superficial mechanical properties of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The selected alloy after ionic implantation process by plasma immersion was submitted to creep tests at 600 °C, in constant load mode at 250 and 319 MPa. The techniques used in this work were optical microscopy and scanning electronic microscopy. The fractograph analysis of the samples tested in creep shows narrowing phenomena and microcavities. The creep results show the significant increase of material resistance, it can be used as protection of oxidation in high temperatures applications.

Passive Layer Breakdown on Titanium in Doped and Undoped Artificial Saliva

The aim of this work is to investigate the long term (3000 exposure hours) tendency of passive layers on titanium to breakdown in Tani-Zucchi and Carter-Brugirard artificial saliva undoped and doped with chloride and fluoride ions. The non-uniformity of the saliva pH (from 7.88 to 5.73 and extreme case 2.15) was simulated. The following techniques were used: potentiostatic, potentiodynamic and linear polarization, the monitoring of the open circuit potentials vs. exposure time and atomic force microscopy. The breakdown (pitting) potential at about +2.9 V and the re-passivation potential at +2.4 V in Tani-Zucchi artificial saliva were determined. So, the pitting protection potential is very noble and can not be reached in human body.

In vitro biocompatibility and corrosion resistance of a new implant titanium base alloy

One objective of this work was to study the corrosion resistance of the new implant Ti-10Zr-5Ta-5Nb alloy in physiological fluids of different pH values, simulating the extreme functional conditions. Another objective was in vitro biocompatibility evaluation of the new alloy using human fetal osteoblast cell line hFOB 1.19. Cytocompatibility was assessed by determination of possible material cytotoxic effects, cell morphology and cell adhesion. The thermo-mechanical processing of the new implant alloy consisted in plastic deformation (almost 90%) performed by hot rolling accompanied by an initial and final heat treatment. The new Ti-10Zr-5Ta-5Nb alloy presented self-passivation, with a large passive potential range and low passive current densities, namely, a very good anticorrosive resistance in Ringer solution of acid, neutral and alkaline pH values. Cell viability was not affected by the alloy substrate presence and a very good compatibility was noticed.

Electrochemical behaviour of titanium in ammine and stannous fluoride and chlorhexidine 0.2 percent mouthwashes

Titanium (Ti) is widely used in dentistry. Fluorides at acid pH could destabilize Ti oxide and make it susceptible to corrosion. The behaviour of IV grade machined Ti disks in 5 electrolytic solutions: Fusayama artificial saliva (Fas), ammine fluoride-stannous fluoride (Am-SnF2), 0.2 percent Chlorexidine (CHX) 0.20 percent, Fas with 20 percent Am-SnF2, and Fas with 20 percent CHX, was evaluated. Open circuit potential Ecorr was determined by immersing Ti disks for 24 hours in an electrochemical cell containing the solutions, potential changes were measured until a stable value was obtained. Examination by Scanning Electronic Microscope and Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis were then performed. One way ANOVA analysis showed a significant difference of Ecorr values regarding the 5 solutions (p less than 0.001). The highest values were observed for Fas (-37.6 mV), intermediate for Am-SnF2 (-81mV) and lowest for CHX (-87.6mV). SEM analysis of disks after polarization curve in CHX showed a marked localized corrosion, while the other solutions showed no considerable corrosive action on Ti surface. When considering corrosive potential range in oral cavity, Ti had an excellent behaviour on both antiseptics evaluated. The results obtained in this study will enable us to recommend the use of Am-SnF2 mouthwash for patients with dental implants.

Monitoring of titanium base alloys–biofluids interface

Monitoring of the titanium, Ti-5Al-4V, Ti-6Al-4Fe implant materials--Ringer 1 and Ringer 2 solutions (of different pH values) interface for long term was studied in this work. In Ringer 1 solution (with high chloride ion content) all biomaterials present self-passivation. On Ti-6Al-4Fe alloy, the breakdown of the passive film was registered but at high pitting potential; pitting protection potential is very noble and can not be reached in human fluids. In Ringer 2 solution was obtained more electropositive corrosion potential values than in Ringer 1 solution; pitting corrosion of Ti-6Al-4Fe alloy is characterised by nobler breakdown and pitting protection potential values, therefore a better pitting corrosion resistance and tendency. Ion release increases in time, for the first 400-600 immersion hours and then tend to a constant level with very low values, non-dangerous for human body. All open circuit potentials oscillate around some electropositive values. The potential gradients calculated for extreme pH values have low values during 20,000 exposure hours and can not accelerate the corrosion. Atomic Force Microscopy images obtained after different exposure periods in Ringer 1 solution revealed that the roughness increased in time, suggesting a dynamic process at biomaterial-biofluid interface. X-ray Photoelectron spectra obtained after 2880 immersion hours in Ringer 2 solution show the existence of protective titanium dioxide TiO(2) and TiO and Ti(2)O(3) oxides both for titanium and Ti-5Al-4V alloy. Also, Al(2)O(3) oxide was detected.

X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) analysis of titanium-implanted soft tissue

Tissues contacting Ti dental implants were subjected to X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) analysis to examine the chemical state of Ti transferred from the placed implant into the surrounding tissue. Nine tissues that contacted pure Ti cover screws for several months were excised in a second surgery whereby healing abutments were set. Six tissues that surrounded implants retrieved due to their failure were also excised. Ti distributions in the excised specimens were confirmed by X-ray scanning analytical microscopy (XSAM), and the specimens were subjected to fluorescence XAFS analysis to determine the chemical states of the low concentrations of Ti in the tissues surrounding Ti dental implants. Ti mostly existed in the metallic state and was considered to be debris derived from the abrasion of implant pieces during implant surgery. Oxidized forms of Ti, such as anatase and rutile, were also detected in a few specimens-and existed in either a pure state or mixed state with metallic Ti. It was concluded that the existence of Ti in the tissue did not cause implant failure. Moreover, the usefulness of XAFS for analysis of the chemical states of rarely contained elements in biological tissue was demonstrated.

Electrochemical behavior of cast Ti-Ag alloys

Anodic polarization tests were performed in 0.9% NaCl and 1% lactic acid solutions to characterize the relationship between the corrosion behavior and the microstructures of cast Ti-Ag (5-40% Ag) alloys. The anodic polarization curves for the Ti-Ag alloys up to 17.5% Ag were similar to those for pure titanium in both solutions. On the other hand, an abrupt increase in the current density was observed for the alloys with more than 20% Ag in the NaCl solution and with more than 27.5% Ag in the lactic acid solution. The microstructures of the corroded alloy surfaces indicated the deterioration of precipitated intermetallic compounds along the grain boundaries. The Ti-Ag alloys up to 17.5% Ag had excellent corrosion resistance similar to that of pure titanium. The alloys with 20-25% Ag may be also used as dental alloys, since they passivated again immediately after preferential dissolution in the NaCl solution.

The effect of investment material type on the contamination zone and mechanical properties of commercially pure titanium castings

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Different types of investment materials affect the formation of a surface contamination zone within commercially pure titanium (cpTi) castings. This contamination zone may possibly alter the mechanical properties of cast titanium, which may be problematic for castings used in the fabrication of removable and fixed prostheses.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of different types of investments on the extent of contamination zone and the modulus of elasticity, yield strength, elongation, and hardness of cpTi castings.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Forty wax patterns were fabricated according to ISO 9693 for tensile testing. The patterns were divided into 2 groups of 20 patterns each, invested, and cast in pairs using cpTi. The first group (P) was invested with a phosphate-bonded silica-based investment material (Ticoat S+L), and the second group (M), with a magnesia-alumina investment material (Rematitan Ultra). Investment materials were examined by x-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). One specimen from each group was sectioned and prepared for metallographic observation. The extent of the contamination zone was determined by scanning electron microscopy, using back-scattering electron imaging and energy dispersive spectroscopy analysis, as well as microhardness testing. The tensile strength of the specimens was determined in a universal testing machine. From the derived tensile curves, the modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and percentage elongation were calculated and statistically evaluated among the groups using the Student t test (alpha=.05). Three fractured specimens from each group were examined by scanning electron microscopy to determine the mode of fracture.

RESULTS

XRD analysis showed that silica and magnesia were the dominant phases of Ticoat S+L and Rematitan Ultra, respectively. The contamination zone was found to extend 50 to 80 mum for the P specimens and 15 to 20 mum for the M specimens. No significance difference was found for the modulus of elasticity (P=85 +/- 11 GPa, M=79 +/- 13 GPa), whereas significant differences were found for the yield strength (P=462 +/- 48 MPa, M=321 +/- 54 MPa; P<.001) and percentage elongation (P=12 +/- 2, M=21 +/- 7; P=.002) between the groups tested. The fracture mode was brittle externally and ductile internally for both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the results of this study, the extent of the contamination zone as well as the yield strength and percentage elongation of the cpTi castings were significantly affected by the type of the investment material.

Corrosion behavior of titanium in the presence of calcium phosphate and serum proteins

The effect of calcium phosphate surface deposit and the surface adsorption of the serum proteins, bovine serum albumin (BSA) and fibrinogen, on the corrosion resistance and electrochemical behavior of (cp)titanium in phosphate buffer saline solution (pH 7.4) was investigated at physiological temperature, 37 degrees C, using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and dc electrochemical polarization techniques. The formation of calcium phosphate deposit on the Ti surface decreased both the corrosion rate at the open circuit potential (OCP) and the anodic reaction current in the high anodic potential range (>2.6 V). Addition of BSA significantly moved the OCP towards a more negative (cathodic) potential and inhibited the cathodic corrosion reaction, but did not significantly change the corrosion resistance at the OCP. Addition of fibrinogen showed a similar, but less pronounced effect than BSA. The possible mechanisms leading to these observed effects are discussed.

Electrochemical corrosion and metal ion release from Co-Cr-Mo prosthesis with titanium plasma spray coating

The corrosion behavior of CoCrMo implants with rough titanium coatings, applied by different suppliers by either sintering or vacuum plasma spraying, has been evaluated and compared with uncoated material. The open-circuit potential, corrosion current and polarization resistance were determined by electrochemical techniques. The Co, Cr and Ti ions released from the samples into the electrolyte during a potentiostatic extraction technique were analyzed using ICP-MS. The Ti coatings from the different suppliers showed a different porous morphology, and the implants exhibited a distinct corrosion activity, underlining the importance of the coating process parameters. Among the titanium coated samples, the one with the sintered overcoat turned out to be the most resistant. Yet, on an absolute scale, they all showed a corrosion resistance inferior to that of uncoated CoCrMo or wrought titanium.

Electrochemical characterization of cast Ti-Hf binary alloys

This study characterized the electrochemical behavior of Ti-Hf binary alloys in a simulated oral environment. Ti-Hf alloys (10, 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 mass% Hf) were prepared by arc-melting titanium sponge and hafnium sponge. Specimens of each alloy (n = 4) were prepared using a dental titanium casting system with a MgO-based investment. Specimens were inspected with X-ray radiography to ensure minimal internal porosity. Castings (n = 4) made from pure titanium and commercially pure titanium were used as controls. The ground flat surface (10 mm x 10 mm) on each specimen where approximately 30 microm was removed was used for the characterization. Sixteen-hour open-circuit potential (OCP) measurement, linear polarization and potentiodynamic cathodic polarization were performed sequentially in aerated (air + 10% CO2) MTZ synthetic saliva at 37 degrees C. Potentiodynamic anodic polarization was conducted in the same medium but deaerated (N2 + 10% CO2) 2 h before and during testing. Polarization resistance (R(P)) and Tafel slopes were determined, as were corrosion current density (I(CORR)) and passive current density (I(PASS)). Results were subjected to nonparametric statistical analysis (alpha = 0.05). The OCP stabilized (mean values -229 mV to -470 mV vs. SCE) for all specimens after the 16-h immersion. Similar passivation was observed for all the metals on their anodic polarization diagrams. The Kruskal-Wallis test showed significant differences in OCP among the test groups (p = 0.006). No significant differences were found in R(P), I(CORR) or I(PASS) among all the metals (p>0.3). Results indicate that the electrochemical behavior of the Ti-Hf alloys examined resembles that of pure titanium.

SEM/EDS evaluation of porcelain adherence to gold-coated cast titanium

The adhesion between titanium and dental porcelain is related to the diffusion of oxygen to the reaction layer formed on cast-titanium surfaces during porcelain firing. The diffusion of oxygen could be suppressed by coating the titanium surface with a thin gold layer. This study characterized the effects of gold coating on titanium-ceramic adhesion. ASTM grade II CP titanium was cast into a MgO-based investment (Selevest CB, Selec). The specimen surfaces were air abraded with 110-microm Al(2)O(3) particles. Gold coating was applied on titanium surfaces by three methods: gold-paste (Deck Gold NF, Degussa-Ney) coating and firing at 800 degrees C for three times, single gold-paste coating and firing followed by sputter coating (40 mA, 500 s), and sputter coating (40 mA, 1000 s). Surfaces only air abraded with Al(2)O(3) particles were used as controls. An ultra-low-fusing dental porcelain (Vita Titankeramik, Vident) was fused on titanium surfaces. Specimen surfaces were characterized by SEM/EDS and XRD. The titanium-ceramic adhesion was evaluated by a biaxial flexure test (N = 8), and area fraction of adherent porcelain (AFAP) was determined by EDS. Numerical results were statistically analyzed by one-way ANOVA and the Student-Newman-Keuls test at alpha = 0.05. SEM fractography showed a substantial amount of porcelains remaining on the gold-sputter-coated titanium surfaces. A new Au(2)Ti phase was found on gold-coated titanium surface after the firing. Significantly higher (p <.05) AFAP values were determined for the gold-sputter-coated specimens compared to the others. No significant differences were found among the other groups and the control. Results suggested that gold coatings used in this study are not effective barriers to completely protect titanium from oxidation during the porcelain firing, and porcelain adherence to cast titanium can be improved by gold-sputter coating used in the present study.

Corrosion behavior of cast titanium with reduced surface reaction layer made by a face-coating method

This study characterized the corrosion behavior of cast CP titanium made with a face-coating method. Wax patterns were coated with oxide slurry of Y(2)O(3) or ZrO(2) before investing with a MgO-based investment. Three surface preparations were tested: ground, sandblasted, and as-cast. Uncoated castings served as controls. Sixteen-hour open circuit potential (OCP) measurement, linear polarization and potentiodynamic cathodic polarization were performed in an aerated modified Tani-Zucchi synthetic saliva at 37 degrees C. Anodic polarization was conducted in the same deaerated medium. Polarization resistance (R(p)) and Tafel slopes were determined. Corrosion current density was calculated for each specimen. Results (n=4) were subjected to nonparametric statistical analysis (alpha=0.05). Cross sections of cast specimens were examined by optical microscopy. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) spot analysis was performed at various depths below the surface. The OCP stabilized within several hours for all the specimens. Apparent differences in anodic polarization behavior were observed among the different surfaces. A distinctive wide passive region followed by breakdown was seen on specimens with ground and sandblasted surfaces. There were no significant differences in the corrosion resistance among the control and the two face-coating groups for each group. The Mann-Whitney test showed significantly lower OCP and higher R(p) values for ground surfaces. The surface condition significantly affected the corrosion behavior more than the face coating methods. In most cases, specimens with as-cast surfaces exhibited the least corrosion resistance during the potentiodynamic anodic polarization.

Physiological strains induce differentiation in human osteoblasts cultured on orthopaedic biomaterial

We have developed an in vitro mechanical stretching model of osteoblastic cells cultured on metallic biomaterials in order to study the effects of mechanical strain on osteointegration of orthopaedic implants. Titanium alloy discs coated with alumina or hydroxyapatite were used as substrates. Three Dynacell devices were especially designed to apply cyclic strains on rigid biomaterials. The regimen (600 mu epsilon strains, 0.25Hz) was defined on the basis of physiological data and estimated deformation on hip stem prostheses. The performances of these apparatus were reproducible and provided controlled deformations. Human osteosarcoma cell line MG-63, human osteoblasts obtained from primary cultures and ROS 17/2.8 rat osteosarcoma cells were used as cell models. Cell behaviour was assessed in terms of growth and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity by in situ assays for two regimens: 15-min deformations repeated three times a day to mimic rehabilitation exercises and 24-h continuous deformations. We demonstrated that continuous deformation did not affect the growth and ALP activity of MG-63 cells, in contrast with sequential deformations which had no effect on cell number, but which stimulated ALP activity after 5 days of stretching. This sequential regimen can also modify the behaviour of human bone-derived cells resulting in increased proliferation after 5 days and stimulation of ALP activity after 15 days. ROS 17/2.8 rat osteosarcoma cells submitted to sequential deformations responded faster than other cell lines by increasing their ALP activity only after 1 day of stretching. Like MG-63 cells, proliferation of the ROS 17/2.8 rat osteosarcoma cell line was not affected by sequential deformations. This study suggests that short, repeated deformations defined to mimic rehabilitation exercises recommended after prostheses implantation are more likely to exert beneficial effects on implanted bone than continuous strains.

Evaluation of corrosion on plasma sprayed and anodized titanium implants, both with and without bone cement

The corrosion behavior of titanium with vacuum plasma sprayed titanium coatings and with anodized surfaces, both with and without polymeric bone cement were evaluated. Electrochemical extraction tests were carried out with subsequent analysis of the electrolyte by ICP-MS in order to verify our hypothesis of the ionic permeability of the polymer cement. The complexity of the situation resides in the existence of two interfaces: electrolyte-polymer and polymer-metal. The surface preparation (treatment of the surface) plays an important role in the corrosion resistance of titanium. The electrochemical magnitudes that were examined reveal that the plasma spray surfaces have the lowest corrosion resistance. The cement, in spite of having reduced electrical conductivity in comparison to metal, is an ionic transporter, and therefore capable of participating in the corrosion process. In the present study, we observed in fact crevice corrosion at the metal-cement interface. In the case of plasma spray surfaces, a process of diffusion of titanium particles in the electrolyte could accompany the crevice corrosion. In this study, we have shown that there is a corrosion process at the surface of the titanium through the cement which has as a consequence on the one hand the formation of titanium cations and on the other hand the growth of a passive layer on the titanium. In conclusion, we identified two principal factors that influence the corrosion process: [1] the type of surface treatment for the titanium, and [2] the ionic conductivity of the cement. There is indeed ionic transport through the cement; as evidenced by the presence of titanium in the electrolyte solution (ICP-MS analysis) and chloride at the surface of the titanium sample (EDX analysis). We show that the polymer cement is an ionic conductor and participates in the corrosion of the embedded titanium. We cannot deduce from our results, however, whether the polymer itself possesses corrosive properties. Long-term experiments will be necessary to study the degradation behavior of the polymer cement.

Effects of interfacial variables on ceramic adherence to cast and machined commercially pure titanium

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Titanium-ceramic bonding is less optimal than conventional metal-ceramic bonding, due to excessive oxidation of titanium during porcelain firing.

PURPOSE

This in vitro study evaluated the effects of porcelain firing atmosphere and gold sputter coating on titanium surfaces on porcelain bonding to machined and as-cast titanium substrates. Material and methods Eight groups of ASTM grade 2 commercially pure (CP) titanium specimens (13 mm x13 mm x1 mm) were prepared (n=10). A conventional Au-Pd-In metal-ceramic alloy (Orion) and an ultra low-fusing porcelain (Finesse) served as the control (n=10). Forty machined titanium specimens were prepared from 1.00-mm thick titanium sheets with a diamond band saw. Forty titanium specimens were produced in a centrifugal dental titanium casting machine. All titanium specimens were airborne particle abraded with 110-microm alumina particles, whereas the control specimens were airborne particle abraded with 50-microm alumina particles. Forty titanium specimens (20 specimens each of as-cast and machined titanium) were randomly selected for gold sputter coating before ceramic firing. An ultra low-fusing porcelain (Vita Titankeramik) was fused on the central 6-mm diameter circular area on each titanium specimen. Porcelain firing environments for the titanium specimens consisted of vacuum and a reduced argon atmosphere. Porcelain was debonded by a biaxial flexure, constant strain test at a cross-head speed of 0.25 mm/min. Specimens were analyzed by standardized SEM/EDS analysis 3 times throughout the study to determine the silicon atomic percentage (Si at %): (1) after airborne particle abrasion, before porcelain application; (2) after the application of the first layer of porcelain; and (3) after the fracture of porcelain from the metal substrate. The titanium-ceramic adhesion was characterized by determining the area fraction of adherent porcelain (AFAP). Results were analyzed by analysis of variance and the Student-Newman-Keuls test (alpha=.05).

RESULTS

Statistical analysis showed a significant difference in the AFAP values among all the groups. AFAP value of the control group was significantly higher (135.35 +/- 23.68) than those of the experimental groups (P<.001). For the machined titanium, AFAP value of gold sputter-coated/argon group (91.38 +/- 7.93) was significantly higher than the rest of the groups (P<.001). For the as-cast titanium fired in vacuum, significantly lower AFAP values (P<.001) were found in the gold sputter-coated group (50.2 +/- 11.26 vs 66.15 +/- 10.41). AFAP values between the argon groups with or without the gold coating were not significantly different (P=.303); however, both argon groups (93.83 +/- 4.65 and 98.09 +/- 6.35) showed significantly higher AFAP values compared with the vacuum groups (P<.001).

CONCLUSION

Firing porcelain in a reduced argon atmosphere significantly improved titanium-ceramic bonding for machined and as-cast titanium. The sputter-coated gold layer on titanium provided improved titanium-ceramic bonding only when combined with firing porcelain in reduced argon atmosphere. When porcelain was fired in vacuum in the presence of the gold layer, the titanium-ceramic bonding was weakened in as-cast titanium and was not affected in machined titanium. Conventional noble metal-ceramic bonding was superior to titanium-ceramic bonding regardless of the interfacial variables examined in this study.

Corrosion behaviour of commercially pure titanium shot blasted with different materials and sizes of shot particles for dental implant applications

It is well known that the osseointegration of the commercially pure titanium (c.p. Ti) dental implant is improved when the metal is shot blasted in order to increase its surface roughness. This roughness is colonised by bone, which improves implant fixation. However, shot blasting also changes the chemical composition of the implant surface because some shot particles remain adhered on the metal. The c.p. Ti surfaces shot blasted with different materials and sizes of shot particles were tested in order to determine their topographical features (surface roughness, real surface area and the percentage of surface covered by the adhered shot particles) and electrochemical behaviour (open circuit potential, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and cyclic polarisation). The results demonstrate that the increased surface area of the material because of the increasing surface roughness is not the only cause for differences found in the electrochemical behaviour and corrosion resistance of the blasted c.p. Ti. Among other possible causes, those differences may be attributed to the compressive residual surface stresses induced by shot blasting. All the materials tested have an adequate corrosion and electrochemical behaviour in terms of its possible use as dental implant material.

Electrochemical characterization of cast titanium alloys

A reaction layer forms on cast titanium alloy surfaces due to the reaction of the molten metal with the investment. This surface layer may affect the corrosion of the alloy in the oral environment. The objective of this study was to characterize the in vitro corrosion behavior of cast titanium alloys. ASTM Grade 2 CP titanium, Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-6Al-7Nb and Ti-13Nb-13Zr alloys were cast into a MgO-based investment. Experiments were performed on castings (N=4) with three surface conditions: (A) as-cast surface after sandblasting, (B) polished surface after removal of the reaction layer, and (C) sandblasted surface after removal of the reaction layer. Open-circuit potential (OCP) measurement, linear polarization, and potentiodynamic cathodic polarization were performed in aerated (air+10% CO(2)) modified Tani-Zucchi synthetic saliva at 37 degrees C. Potentiodynamic anodic polarization was subsequently conducted in the same medium deaerated with N(2)+10% CO(2) gas 2 h before and during the experiment. Polarization resistance (R(P)) and corrosion rate (I(CORR)) were calculated. Numerical results were subjected to nonparametric statistical analysis at alpha=0.05. The OCP stabilized for all the specimens after 6 x 10(4)s. Apparent differences in anodic polarization were observed among the different surfaces for all the metals. A passivation region followed by breakdown and repassivation were seen on specimens with surfaces A and C. An extensive passive region was observed on all the metals with surface B. The Kruskal-Wallis test showed no significant differences in OCP, R(p), I(CORR) or break down potential for each of the three surfaces among all the metals. The Mann-Whitney test showed significantly lower R(P) and higher I(CORR) values for surface C compared to the other surfaces. Results indicate that the surface condition has more effect on corrosion of these alloys than the surface reaction layer. Within the oxidation potential range of the oral cavity, all the metal/surface combinations examined showed excellent corrosion resistance.

Porcelain adherence to dental cast CP titanium: effects of surface modifications

OBJECTIVES

A reaction layer forms on cast titanium surfaces due to the reaction of the molten titanium with the investment material. Such a layer prevents strong adhesion between titanium and porcelain. This study characterized the effects of surface modifications on cast titanium surfaces and titanium-ceramic adhesion.

METHODS

ASTM grade II CP titanium was cast into an MgO-based mold. Castings were devested by sandblasting with alumina particles, and subjected to surface modification by immersion in one of the following solutions: (1) 35% HNO3-5% HF at room temperature for 1min; (2) 50% NaOH-10% CuSO4 x 5H2O at 105 degreesC for 10min; (3) the NaOH-CuSO4 solution followed by the HNO3-HF solution; (4) 50% NaOH-10% NaSO4 at 105 degreesC for 10 min; (5) the NaOH-NaSO4 solution followed by the HNO3-HF solution; and (6) 50% NaOH solution at 105 degreesC for 10min. Surfaces only sandblasted with alumina were used as controls. Specimen surfaces were characterized by XRD and SEM/EDS, and hardness-depth profiles were determined. All specimens were sandblasted with 110 microm alumina particles before porcelain firing. An ultra-low-fusing porcelain (Vita Titankeramik) was fused on the titanium surfaces. The titanium-ceramic adhesion was characterized by a biaxial flexure test, and area fraction of adherent porcelain (AFAP) was determined by X-ray spectroscopy.

RESULTS

EDS analyses revealed a substantial amount (13-17 wt%) of Al on the control, and specimens modified with Methods 2, 4, and 6. XRD revealed residual stress in the titanium surfaces and corundum on the control, and Methods 2, 4, and 6 specimens. A new Ti(Cu, Al)2 phase was identified on the titanium surfaces modified by immersion in 50% NaOH-10% CuSO4 x 5H2O aqueous solution. Reduced residual stress was observed on Method 1, 3, and 5 specimens. No corundum peaks were detected on these specimens. Compared to the control, significantly lower (P < 0.05) hardness values were found for Methods 1-3 and Method 5 specimens at 20 microm below the surfaces and for Method 1-5 specimens at 50 microm below the surfaces. Significantly higher (P < 0.05) AFAP values were found for surfaces modified with Methods 2-6 compared to the control and Method 1, and no significant differences were found among Methods 1-6, and between control and Method 1.

SIGNIFICANCE

Based on the results from the present study, porcelain adherence to cast CP titanium can be improved by the caustic baths used in the study.

Corrosion-fatigue life of commercially pure titanium and Ti-6Al-4V alloys in different storage environments

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Removable partial dentures are affected by fatigue because of the cyclic mechanism of the masticatory system and frequent insertion and removal. Titanium and its alloys have been used in the manufacture of denture frameworks; however, preventive agents with fluorides are thought to attack titanium alloy surfaces.

PURPOSE

This study evaluated, compared, and analyzed the corrosion-fatigue life of commercially pure titanium and Ti-6Al-4V alloy in different storage environments.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

For each metal, 33 dumbbell rods, 2.3 mm in diameter at the central segment, were cast in the Rematitan system. Corrosion-fatigue strength test was carried out through a universal testing machine with a load 30% lower than the 0.2% offset yield strength and a combined influence of different environments: in air at room temperature, with synthetic saliva, and with fluoride synthetic saliva. After failure, the number of cycles were recorded, and fracture surfaces were examined with an SEM.

RESULTS

ANOVA and Tukey's multiple comparison test indicated that Ti-6Al-4V alloy achieved 21,269 cycles (SD = 8,355) against 19,157 cycles (SD = 3, 624) for the commercially pure Ti. There were no significant differences between either metal in the corrosion-fatigue life for dry specimens, but when the solutions were present, the fatigue life was significantly reduced, probably because of the production of corrosion pits caused by superficial reactions.