Clonazepam and lorazepam in acute mania: a Bayesian meta-analysis

Antimanic Efficacy, Tolerability, and Acceptability of Clonazepam: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

(1) Background: The use of benzodiazepines for the treatment of acute mania remains prevalent. This systematic review and meta-analysis provides an updated assessment of Clonazepam's antimanic efficacy, tolerability, and acceptability. (2) Methods: A systematic search of multiple databases and clinical trial registries was conducted, aiming to identify any controlled studies of Clonazepam vs. placebo or any other pharmacotherapy for the treatment of acute mania. Pairwise meta-analytic evaluations were performed. (3) Results: Six studies were included with a total number of 192 participants, all of which were randomized controlled trials. Clonazepam may be superior to a placebo in the acute phase of treatment and no different to Lithium and Haloperidol in terms of efficacy, both acutely and in the medium to long term. Clonazepam may be an acceptable and well-tolerated treatment for acute mania, especially when used as an augmentation strategy. Comparisons were underpowered, with minimal sample sizes and only one study per comparison in many cases, thus limiting the generalizability of our findings and hindering firm clinical conclusions. (4) Conclusions: Given the prevalence of benzodiazepine use in current practice, more and larger studies are urgently needed.

Lorazepam use during clinical trials of adults with bipolar mania episodes

Background

Lorazepam has commonly been prescribed to reduce agitation during bipolar 1 mania trials. Its use has varied considerably by trial methodology and in clinical practice.

Methods

The extent and amount of lorazepam treatment was recorded and analyzed from available brief, controlled trials of acute bipolar mania and in clinical reports in adults.

Results

In 3-week, placebo-controlled clinical trials (n = 19), most manic subjects (79%) were treated with lorazepam to reduce agitation. This treatment was most prominent during the antimanic drug wash-out phase that preceded placebo-controlled trials. Doses of lorazepam administered during the first 7-10 days of the pre-trial and the early trial phases averaged 2.2 mg/day. These doses were one-third the lorazepam/clonazepam doses administered during placebo-controlled, non-washout trials. Far higher benzodiazepine doses for manic agitation were noted in emergency department reports. Intake enrollment was strikingly restricted only in placebo-controlled trials that used pretrial drug wash-out.

Conclusions

Medication treatment conclusions from placebo-controlled, drug washout trials are not representative of clinical treatment for acute bipolar mania.

Extra-synaptic modulation of GABAA and efficacy in bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

Bipolar disorder type I is a severe psychiatric condition that leads to significant morbidity and mortality and whose treatment remains suboptimal. Its pathophysiology involves disturbance in the control of ionic fluxes so that when patients are either manic or depressed, the resting membrane potential of neurons is more depolarized than normal. Available mood stabilizers have a shared mechanism of normalizing ion flux by compensating for ionic abnormalities, and normalizing membrane potential.

HYPOTHESIS

Agents that significantly potentiate extrasynaptic GABA_A receptors are expected to be particularly effective in hyperpolarizing resting membrane potential in bipolar patients, thereby normalizing their membrane potential.

DISCUSSION

New neuroactive steroid-like agents are being tested in humans for depression and insomnia. These agents include brexanolone, ganaxolone, and gaboxadol. Brexanolone has been approved for the treatment of postpartum depression, ganaxolone is being studied for treatment-resistant depression, and gaboxadol development for the treatment of insomnia has been abandoned due to narrow therapeutic index. In addition to the current studies, these agents are expected to have particular efficacy in acute and prophylactic management of bipolar I disorder by hyperpolarizing the resting potential of neurons and antagonizing one of the most reproducible demonstrated biologic abnormalities of this illness.

Psychotropic Medication of Acute Episodes of Mood Disorders: Current Prescription Attitude in Two Psychiatric Wards in Cagliari, Italy

Background:

Medication of acute episodes of mood disorders has changed over the last decades following the results of randomized clinical trials.

Objective:

The aim of this study was to analyze medication prescribed at discharge from two psychiatric wards. We focused on hospitalization as one of the best opportunities to start prophylaxis.

Methods:

We examined retrospectively the clinical records of 357 patients hospitalized for mood episodes in two psychiatric wards in the Cagliari area (SPDC-1 and SPDC-2) between 1 January and 31 December 2016. We focused on the psychotropic medication prescribed at discharge from the hospital.

Results:

Most patients were discharged with antipsychotics (86%) and/or benzodiazepines (89%). Combined medication was frequent, including various co-administration of first-generation and/or second-generation antipsychotics (26% of patients), or antipsychotics combined with mood-stabilizers (51% of patients). There was a preferential prescription of first-generation antipsychotics in SPDC-1, and of second-generation antipsychotics in SPDC-2. Prescription of lithium was significantly more frequent in SPDC-1.

Conclusion:

Although the treatment was in line with randomized clinical trials, the choice of individual psychotropic agents differed significantly between the two wards. Different prescription attitudes can have consequences on the long-term outcome of patients discharged from the hospital after an acute mood episode.

Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) and International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD) 2018 guidelines for the management of patients with bipolar disorder

The Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) previously published treatment guidelines for bipolar disorder in 2005, along with international commentaries and subsequent updates in 2007, 2009, and 2013. The last two updates were published in collaboration with the International Society for Bipolar Disorders (ISBD). These 2018 CANMAT and ISBD Bipolar Treatment Guidelines represent the significant advances in the field since the last full edition was published in 2005, including updates to diagnosis and management as well as new research into pharmacological and psychological treatments. These advances have been translated into clear and easy to use recommendations for first, second, and third- line treatments, with consideration given to levels of evidence for efficacy, clinical support based on experience, and consensus ratings of safety, tolerability, and treatment-emergent switch risk. New to these guidelines, hierarchical rankings were created for first and second- line treatments recommended for acute mania, acute depression, and maintenance treatment in bipolar I disorder. Created by considering the impact of each treatment across all phases of illness, this hierarchy will further assist clinicians in making evidence-based treatment decisions. Lithium, quetiapine, divalproex, asenapine, aripiprazole, paliperidone, risperidone, and cariprazine alone or in combination are recommended as first-line treatments for acute mania. First-line options for bipolar I depression include quetiapine, lurasidone plus lithium or divalproex, lithium, lamotrigine, lurasidone, or adjunctive lamotrigine. While medications that have been shown to be effective for the acute phase should generally be continued for the maintenance phase in bipolar I disorder, there are some exceptions (such as with antidepressants); and available data suggest that lithium, quetiapine, divalproex, lamotrigine, asenapine, and aripiprazole monotherapy or combination treatments should be considered first-line for those initiating or switching treatment during the maintenance phase. In addition to addressing issues in bipolar I disorder, these guidelines also provide an overview of, and recommendations for, clinical management of bipolar II disorder, as well as advice on specific populations, such as women at various stages of the reproductive cycle, children and adolescents, and older adults. There are also discussions on the impact of specific psychiatric and medical comorbidities such as substance use, anxiety, and metabolic disorders. Finally, an overview of issues related to safety and monitoring is provided. The CANMAT and ISBD groups hope that these guidelines become a valuable tool for practitioners across the globe.

Treatment recommendations for DSM-5-defined mixed features

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) mixed features specifier provides a less restrictive definition of mixed mood states, compared to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR), including mood episodes that manifest with subthreshold symptoms of the opposite mood state. A limited number of studies have assessed the efficacy of treatments specifically for DSM-5-defined mixed features in mood disorders. As such, there is currently an inadequate amount of data to appropriately inform evidence-based treatment guidelines of DSM-5 defined mixed features. However, given the high prevalence and morbidity of mixed features, treatment recommendations based on the currently available evidence along with expert opinion may be of benefit. This article serves to provide these interim treatment recommendations while humbly acknowledging the limited amount of evidence currently available. Second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) appear to have the greatest promise in the treatment of bipolar disorder (BD) with mixed features. Conventional mood stabilizing agents (ie, lithium and divalproex) may also be of benefit; however, they have been inadequately studied. In the treatment of major depressive disorder (MDD) with mixed features, the comparable efficacy of antidepressants versus other treatments, such as SGAs, remains unknown. As such, antidepressants remain first-line treatment of MDD with or without mixed features; however, there are significant safety concerns associated with antidepressant monotherapy when mixed features are present, which merits increased monitoring. Lurasidone is the only SGA monotherapy that has been shown to be efficacious specifically in the treatment of MDD with mixed features. Further research is needed to accurately determine the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of treatments specifically for mood episodes with mixed features to adequately inform future treatment guidelines.

Drug treatment patterns in bipolar disorder: analysis of long-term self-reported data

Background

The objective of this study is to investigate drug treatment patterns in bipolar disorder using daily data from patients who received treatment as usual.

Methods

Patients self-reported the drugs taken daily for about 6 months. Daily drug use and drug combinations were determined for each patient, both by the specific drugs and by medication class. The drug load was calculated for all drugs taken within a medication class.

Results and discussion

Four hundred fifty patients returned a total of 99,895 days of data (mean 222.0 days). The most frequently taken drugs were mood stabilizers. Of the 450 patients, 353 (78.4%) took a stable drug combination for ≥50% of days. The majority of patients were taking polypharmacy, including 75% of those with a stable combination. Only a small number of drugs were commonly taken within each medication class, but there were a large number of unique drug combinations: 52 by medication class and 231 by specific drugs. Eighty percent of patients with a stable combination were taking three or less drugs daily. Patients without a stable combination took drugs but made frequent changes. Taking more than one drug within a medication class greatly increased the drug load.

To summarize, (1) patients were more likely to take a mood stabilizer than any other drug; (2) although most patients were taking polypharmacy, there were no predominant drug regimens even among those taking a stable combination; and (3) most patients with a stable combination take a relatively small number of drugs daily. The wide variation in drug regimens and numerous possible drug combinations suggest that more evidence is needed to optimize treatment of bipolar disorder.

Mania: diagnosis and treatment recommendations

This article provides recommendations for the diagnosis and treatment of mania, which characterizes bipolar I disorder (BD I). Failure to detect mania leads to misdiagnosis and suboptimal treatment. To diagnose mania, clinicians should include a detailed mood history within their assessment of patients presenting with depression, agitation, psychosis or insomnia. With regards to treatment, by synthesizing the findings from recent treatment guidelines, and reviewing relevant literature, this paper has distilled recommendations for both acute and long-term management. Antimanic agents including atypical antipsychotics and traditional mood stabilizers are employed to reduce acute manic symptoms, augmented by benzodiazepines if needed, and in refractory or severe cases with behavioural and/or psychotic disturbance, electroconvulsive therapy may occasionally be necessary. Maintenance/prophylaxis therapy aims to reduce recurrences/relapse, for which the combination of psychological interventions with pharmacotherapy is beneficial as it ensures adherence and monitoring of tolerability.

Respiratory arrest and oversedation in an adolescent given intramuscular clonazepam for rapid tranquillization

Many young people in forensic adolescent units require intramuscular medication for rapid tranquillization. The efficacy and safety of the medications used is not well reported in this age group. Here we report a case of a 14-year-old girl experiencing severe oversedation and respiratory compromise on two occasions following intramuscular clonazepam.

Antiepileptic drugs in the treatment of psychiatric disorders

The clinical interface between psychiatry and neurology is epilepsy; the pharmacological expression of this interface is antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), as they are used to treat both epilepsy and psychiatric disorders, especially bipolar disorders. The prevalence of psychiatric comorbidity and the risk of suicidal behavior/ideation/suicide are markedly increased in patients with epilepsy (PWE). Though AEDs receive initial indications for the treatment of epilepsy, currently the majority of AEDs are used to treat pain and psychiatric disorders. Thus in selecting the appropriate AEDs for treatment of PWE, consideration should be given to which AEDs best treat the epileptic disorder and the psychiatric comorbidity. This review is an overview of 21 AEDs in which negative psychotropic properties, approved indications in psychiatry, off-label studied uses in psychiatry, and principal uses in psychiatry are presented with literature review. A total of 40 psychiatric uses have been identified. Of the 21 AEDs reviewed, only 5 have U.S. Food and Drug Administration and/or European Medicines Agency psychiatric approval for limited uses; the majority of AEDs are used off-label. Many of these off-label uses are based on case reports, open-label studies, and poorly controlled or small-sample-size studies. In some instances, off-label use persists in the face of negative pivotal trials. Further placebo-controlled (augmentation and monotherapy) parallel-arm research with active comparators is required in the complex field of AED treatment of psychiatric disorders to minimize the treatment gap not only for PWE with psychiatric disorders, but also for psychiatric patients who would benefit from properly studied AEDs while minimizing adverse effects.

Antipsychotic and benzodiazepine use among nursing home residents: findings from the 2004 National Nursing Home Survey

OBJECTIVES

To document the extent and appropriateness of use of antipsychotics and benzodiazepines among nursing home residents using a nationally representative survey.

METHODS

Cross-sectional analysis of the 2004 National Nursing Home Survey. Bivariate and multivariate analyses examined relationships between resident and facility characteristics and antipsychotic and benzodiazepine use by appropriateness classification among residents aged 60 years and older (N = 12,090). Resident diagnoses and information about behavioral problems were used to categorize antipsychotic and benzodiazepine use as appropriate, potentially appropriate, or having no appropriate indication.

RESULTS

More than one quarter (26%) of nursing home residents used an antipsychotic medication, 40% of whom had no appropriate indication for such use. Among the 13% of residents who took benzodiazepines, 42% had no appropriate indication. In adjusted analyses, the odds of residents taking an antipsychotic without an appropriate indication were highest for residents with diagnoses of depression (odds ratio [OR] = 1.31; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.12-1.53), dementia (OR = 1.82; 95% CI: 1.52-2.18), and with behavioral symptoms (OR = 1.97, 95% CI: 1.56-2.50). The odds of potentially inappropriate antipsychotic use increased as the percentage of Medicaid residents in a facility increased (OR = 1.08, 95% CI: 1.02-1.15) and decreased as the percentage of Medicare residents increased (OR = 0.46, 95% CI: 0.25-0.83). The odds of taking a benzodiazepine without an appropriate indication were highest among residents who were female (OR = 1.44; 95% CI: 1.18-1.75), white (OR = 1.95; 95% CI: 1.47-2.60), and had behavioral symptoms (OR = 1.69; 95% CI: 1.41-2.01).

CONCLUSION

Antipsychotics and benzodiazepines seem to be commonly prescribed to residents lacking an appropriate indication for their use.

Switching to hypomania and mania: differential neurochemical, neuropsychological, and pharmacologic triggers and their mechanisms

Current data suggest that monoamines, acetylcholine, amino acids, cortisol, thyroid hormones, and melatonin may be involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BPD). Any neuropsychological or pharmacologic factor causing a disturbance in these neurochemicals may trigger manic/hypomanic switching. Antidepressants, stimulants, anticholinergics, steroids, and thyroid hormone have been reported to cause treatment-emergent mania (TEM) in BPD, but only recently have the traditional antidepressants been systematically studied. Paroxetine, 20 mg/d, monotherapy in treatment of acute, relatively "pure" bipolar I and II depression, and fluoxetine monotherapy in bipolar II depression conferred a similar risk as placebo for TEM. Paroxetine or bupropion adjunctive therapy to mood stabilizer(s) had a similar risk as placebo for treatment of TEM in real world patients with bipolar depression during continuation treatment. Venlafaxine was shown to have an increased risk of TEM compared with bupropion and sertraline. The evolving literature continues to support the role of mood stabilizers in preventing future mood episodes of BPD.

Evidence of clonazepam abuse liability: results of the tools developed by the French Centers for Evaluation and Information on Pharmacodependence (CEIP) network

Recent observations suggest the existence of clonazepam abuse. To determine its importance in France, a quantitative and systematic synthesis of all clonazepam data of several epidemiological tools of the Centers for Evaluation and Information on Pharmacodependence (CEIP) network has been performed in comparison with data on others benzodiazepines (BZD). Data on clonazepam and other BZD have been analysed from different epidemiological tools: OSIAP survey that identifies drugs obtained by means of falsified prescriptions, Observation of Illegal Drugs and Misuse of Psychotropic Medications (OPPIDUM) survey that describes modalities of use and data from regional French health reimbursement system. In OSIAP survey, the proportion of clonazepam falsified prescriptions among all BZD falsified prescriptions increased. During the 2006 OPPIDUM survey, the analysis of the BZD modalities of use highlights clonazepam abuse liability (for example 23% of illegal acquisition), in second rank after flunitrazepam. Studies based on data from the French health reimbursed system show that 1.5% of subjects with clonazepam dispensing had a deviant behaviour. Among BZD, clonazepam has the second most important doctor-shopping indicator (3%) after flunitrazepam. All these data provide some arguments in favour of clonazepam abuse liability in real life and the necessity to reinforce its monitoring.

The pharmacological treatment of bipolar disorder: the question of modern advances

INTRODUCTION

Lithium has been the mainstay of treatment for patients with bipolar disorder in the United States since 1970. Major treatment guidelines recommend lithium as a first-line treatment for mania and maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder, yet lithium has fallen out of favor while other agents have grown in popularity. The purpose of this review is to examine the evidence for treatments that were available in 1970 and to determine if the field has made any significant advance in the treatment of mania, bipolar depression, and maintenance.

METHODS

We conducted a MEDLINE search through 2009, and examined only English-language, randomized/controlled, placebo, or comparison studies. Tolerability as a factor was not considered for this review.

RESULTS

Lithium, valproate, benzodiazepines, and antipsychotics have been reported effective for mania-which was essentially the state of the field in 1970. Despite an FDA indication for the use of lamotrigine for depression and depression maintenance, the supporting evidence is conflicting. For bipolar maintenance, the evidence is overwhelming in support of lithium and very thin for valproate and carbamazepine. There is emerging evidence that several atypical antipsychotics may have efficacy in prevention.

DISCUSSION

The gold standard for treating bipolar disorder in 1970 was lithium, and the gold standard in 2009 remains lithium. Newer agents may increase our armamentarium to some extent, but it is not clear if they represent a major advance in treatment. They still need to be tested against the gold standard.

Estimation of clonazepam abuse liability: a new method using a reimbursed drug database

Some observations suggest the existence of clonazepam abuse. The aim of this study was to assess its magnitude in real life by a new method, using a prescription database, and to assess its evolution between 2001 and 2006. Individuals from a region affiliated to the French health reimbursement system, who had a prescription of clonazepam reimbursed between 1 January and 15 February of two selected years were included. Their deliveries were monitored over a 9-month period. After a descriptive analysis, a clustering method illustrated by a factorial analysis was used to identify different subgroups of clonazepam consumers. An increase of 82% in participants who had a delivery of clonazepam between 2001 and 2006 was observed. Using the clustering method, this study identified some deviant participants. This group comprises a higher proportion of males, benzodiazepine users, and buprenorphine users. The number of deliveries by different prescribers and pharmacies are higher. The proportion of deviant participants increased between 2001 and 2006 (from 0.86 to 1.38%). Our method can be used to assess the magnitude of abuse liability of clonazepam and is also interesting for following its evolution, two important keys for assessing patterns of abuse.

[Assessment of inappropriate prescriptions in psychiatric in-patients]

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate occurrence of the inappropriate prescriptions in a psychiatric department.

METHODOLOGY

In this prospective survey over a two-month period, the medical orders were analysed. Inappropriate prescription was defined as any discrepancy with summary of product characteristics (SPC) or our hospital treatment guidelines.

RESULTS

One hundred inpatients (72 women, mean age 37.5+/-15 years) were included. We reviewed 495 medication orders, which represent 1875 prescribed drugs. We found 2636 discrepancies with SPC or our hospital treatment guidelines. The proportion of discrepancies related to legal informations was 21.28% and them related to pharmacotherapy was 55.04%. The proportion of discrepancy per patient was estimated to 4.93%.

CONCLUSION

Our study shows a high proportion of inappropriate prescriptions, none of them having induced adverse-drug effects.

Managing Psychotic Illness in Young People: A Practical Overview

  The management of early onset psychosis poses a significant challenge to professionals working in Child and Adolescent Mental Health Services. Young people with psychotic illness often present with a mixed clinical picture and a wide variety of attendant issues. Over the last decade there has been accumulating research, mainly based on work with adults, regarding the efficacy and effectiveness of medical and psychosocial interventions for patients with schizoaffective spectrum disorders. This article takes a symptoms-based approach, collating and summarising recent evidence, where it exists, regarding best practice when managing young people affected by schizophrenia, schizoaffective or bipolar affective disorder.

Pharmacological interventions for acute bipolar mania: a systematic review of randomized placebo-controlled trials

OBJECTIVES

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials in acute bipolar mania to summarize available data on drug treatment of mania.

METHODS

We included trials of medications licensed in the USA or UK for the treatment of any phase of bipolar disorder. Outcomes investigated were changes in mania scores, attrition, extrapyramidal effects and weight change. Data were combined through meta-analyses.

RESULTS

We included 13 studies (involving 3,089 subjects) and identified 2 studies for each of the following medications: carbamazepine, haloperidol, lithium, olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, valproate semisodium and aripiprazole. All drugs showed significant benefit compared with placebo for reduction in mania scores. Compared with placebo, for all antipsychotics pooled, response to treatment (> or =50% reduction in Young Mania Rating Scale scores) was increased more than 1.7 times [relative risk (RR) = 1.74, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.54, 1.96]; for all mood stabilizers pooled, response to treatment was doubled (RR 2.01, 95% CI = 1.66, 2.43). Overall withdrawals were 34% fewer (24-43%) with antipsychotics, and 26% fewer (10-39%) with mood stabilizers. However, for carbamazepine, aripiprazole and lithium an increase in risk of withdrawal could not be excluded. Small but significant increases in extrapyramidal side effects occurred with risperidone and aripiprazole.

CONCLUSIONS

Antipsychotics and mood stabilizers are significantly more effective than placebo for the treatment of acute mania. Their effect sizes are similar. Small differences between effect sizes may be due to differences in the patients included in the studies or to chance. Carbamazepine and lithium may be more poorly tolerated, and antipsychotics cause more extrapyramidal side effects.

Clonazepam in the treatment of psychiatric disorders: an update

An updated overview over the past decade is provided with respect to the use of clonazepam in a variety of psychiatric disorders. The efficacy of clonazepam monotherapy for the short-term treatment of panic disorder (PD) was fully established in two large pivotal multicentre studies in the late 1990s in a total of >800 patients. Other studies support a role for clonazepam, in association with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), to accelerate treatment response in PD. Although some longitudinal data suggest an ability to maintain improvement without tolerance for up to 3 years, long-term controlled studies of clonazepam in PD are lacking. Studies have shown that clonazepam can also block CO2-induced panic and improve certain aspects of quality of life in PD. Clonazepam has shown some efficacy in social phobia; however, because this evidence is based on few studies, further studies are warranted before definitive conclusions can be drawn. Finally, evidence for the use of clonazepam in acute mania and as augmentation therapy with SSRIs to accelerate response in depression is examined. The long half-life and higher potency of clonazepam may allow easier discontinuation with fewer withdrawal symptoms compared to other benzodiazepines and studies using a slow clonazepam taper appear promising.

Treatment-resistant bipolar disorder

Despite the remarkable increase in medications validated as effective in bipolar disorder, treatment is still plagued by inadequate response in acute manic or depressive episodes or in long-term preventive maintenance treatment. Established first-line treatments include lithium, valproate and second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) in acute mania, and lithium and valproate as maintenance treatments. Recently validated treatments include extended release carbamazapine for acute mania and lamotrigine, olanzapine and aripiprazole as maintenance treatments. For treatment-resistant mania and as maintenance treatments, a number of newer anticonvulsants, and one older one, phenytoin, have shown some promise as effective. However, not all anticonvulsants are effective and each agent needs to be evaluated individually. Combining multiple agents is the most commonly used clinical strategy for treatment resistant bipolar patients despite a relative lack of data supporting its use, except for acute mania (for which lithium or valproate plus an SGA is optimal treatment). Other approaches that may be effective for treatment-resistant patients include high-dose thyroid augmentation, clozapine, calcium channel blockers and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Adjunctive psychotherapies show convincing efficacy using a variety of different techniques, most of which include substantial attention to education and enhancing coping strategies. Only recently, bipolar depression has become a topic of serious inquiry with the dominant controversy focusing on the place of antidepressants in the treatment of bipolar depression. Other than mood stabilizers alone or the combination of mood stabilizers and antidepressants, most of the approaches for treatment-resistant bipolar depression are relatively similar to those used in unipolar depression, with the possible exception of a more prominent place for SGAs, prescribed either alone or in combination with antidepressants. Future work in the area needs to explore the treatments commonly used by clinicians with inadequate research support, such as combination therapy and the use of antidepressants as both acute and adjunctive maintenance treatments for bipolar disorder.

Bipolar disorder: historic perspective, current pharmacologic treatment options and a review of quetiapine

Bipolar disorder is a complex mental illness that is frequently both under-diagnosed and under-treated. The symptoms of bipolar disorder can be confused with other medical illnesses or drug effects or may even be overlooked entirely as extreme character traits. The consequences of delayed diagnosis or misdiagnosis are potentially devastating, including loss of employment, impaired relationships and a severely impaired quality of life. This article will review the historic perspectives of bipolar disorder, the diagnostic criteria for the phases of the illness, and the pharmacologic options available to treat this condition. Quetiapine, an atypical antipsychotic, will be reviewed indepth. Based on extensive trial data, reviewed in this article, quetiapine is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for use as monotherapy or as adjunctive therapy with other mood stabilizers for the treatment of acute manic episodes of bipolar I disorder. Clinical trials describing the efficacy of quetiapine in other phases of bipolar disorder and in other patient populations are also reviewed. A discussion of the drug profile of quetiapine includes its chemistry, availability, pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and metabolism. Preclinical studies, postmarketing surveillance, safety, tolerability and regulatory issues are also evaluated. Finally, potential future directions for quetiapine are discussed, together with a review of key issues in bipolar disorder management and details of the information resources used in preparing this article.

Détournement d’usage du clonazépam (Rivotril®) : tendances récentes

Recent observations suggest the existence of clonazepam abuse. In order to determine the importance of this practice and the characteristics of these consumers, a study has been carried out, based on data from the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur and Corsica health reimbursement system. Individuals from these regions affiliated to the French health reimbursement system, who have had a prescription of clonazepam reimbursed between January 1, 2001 and February 15, 2001, have been selected. The deliveries have been monitored over a 9 month-period. 9381 subjects have been selected. A sub-group of 1.5 per cent subjects with a deviant behaviour has been identified by factorial analysis and has been compared to the sub-group without deviant behaviour. The subjects with deviant behaviour are younger and mostly male. The dosage of clonazepam is higher (10.8 mg per day versus 2.1 mg per day) with a significantly higher proportion of benzodiazepine and high-dose buprenorphine. The number of deliveries is higher (19.4 versus 5.9) as well as the number of different physicians (4.5 versus 1.5) and pharmacies (5.9 versus 1.3). This study provides some arguments in favor of the potential of abuse and dependence of clonazepam and the necessity to reinforce its monitoring. This information requires to be relayed to health professionals.

Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) guidelines for the management of patients with bipolar disorder: consensus and controversies

Since the previous publication of Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) guidelines in 1997, there has been a substantial increase in evidence-based treatment options for bipolar disorder. The present guidelines review the new evidence and use criteria to rate strength of evidence and incorporate effectiveness, safety, and tolerability data to determine global clinical recommendations for treatment of various phases of bipolar disorder. The guidelines suggest that although pharmacotherapy forms the cornerstone of management, utilization of adjunctive psychosocial treatments and incorporation of chronic disease management model involving a healthcare team are required in providing optimal management for patients with bipolar disorder. Lithium, valproate and several atypical antipsychotics are first-line treatments for acute mania. Bipolar depression and mixed states are frequently associated with suicidal acts; therefore assessment for suicide should always be an integral part of managing any bipolar patient. Lithium, lamotrigine or various combinations of antidepressant and mood-stabilizing agents are first-line treatments for bipolar depression. First-line options in the maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder are lithium, lamotrigine, valproate and olanzapine. Historical and symptom profiles help with treatment selection. With the growing recognition of bipolar II disorders, it is anticipated that a larger body of evidence will become available to guide treatment of this common and disabling condition. These guidelines also discuss issues related to bipolar disorder in women and those with comorbidity and include a section on safety and monitoring.

Anticonvulsivantes e antipsicóticos no tratamento do transtorno bipolar

O transtorno bipolar é uma condição médica complexa e até o momento não há um tratamento único comprovadamente eficaz no controle de todos aspectos da doença. Foram revisadas a literatura disponível sobre o uso de anticonvulsivantes (valproato, carbamazepina, oxcarbazepina, lamotrigina, gabapentina, topiramato, clonazepam) e antipsicóticos atípicos (clozapina, risperidona, olanzapina, quetiapina, ziprasidona e aripiprazole) no tratamento agudo e profilático do transtorno bipolar. Existe um acúmulo de evidências acerca da eficácia do lítio na profilaxia e de ser melhor no tratamento da mania aguda do que nos episódios depressivos. Outros dados indicam que a carbamazepina e o valproato são eficazes na mania aguda. A lamotrigina parece reduzir ciclagem e ser eficaz em episódios depressivos. Baseado nas informações disponíveis, as evidências apontam a olanzapina como o antipsicótico atípico mais apropriado no tratamento de pacientes bipolares em mania, embora existam estudos sugerindo a eficácia da risperidona, aripiprazol e da clozapina. Resultados preliminares avaliando a eficácia de ziprasidona e quetiapina no transtorno bipolar ainda são bastante limitadas. Não há dados consistentes apoiando o uso profilático dos novos antipsicóticos.